8 A Perl program consists of a sequence of declarations and statements
9 which run from the top to the bottom. Loops, subroutines, and other
10 control structures allow you to jump around within the code.
12 Perl is a B<free-form> language: you can format and indent it however
13 you like. Whitespace serves mostly to separate tokens, unlike
14 languages like Python where it is an important part of the syntax,
15 or Fortran where it is immaterial.
17 Many of Perl's syntactic elements are B<optional>. Rather than
18 requiring you to put parentheses around every function call and
19 declare every variable, you can often leave such explicit elements off
20 and Perl will figure out what you meant. This is known as B<Do What I
21 Mean>, abbreviated B<DWIM>. It allows programmers to be B<lazy> and to
22 code in a style with which they are comfortable.
24 Perl B<borrows syntax> and concepts from many languages: awk, sed, C,
25 Bourne Shell, Smalltalk, Lisp and even English. Other
26 languages have borrowed syntax from Perl, particularly its regular
27 expression extensions. So if you have programmed in another language
28 you will see familiar pieces in Perl. They often work the same, but
29 see L<perltrap> for information about how they differ.
32 X<declaration> X<undef> X<undefined> X<uninitialized>
34 The only things you need to declare in Perl are report formats and
35 subroutines (and sometimes not even subroutines). A scalar variable holds
36 the undefined value (C<undef>) until it has been assigned a defined
37 value, which is anything other than C<undef>. When used as a number,
38 C<undef> is treated as C<0>; when used as a string, it is treated as
39 the empty string, C<"">; and when used as a reference that isn't being
40 assigned to, it is treated as an error. If you enable warnings,
41 you'll be notified of an uninitialized value whenever you treat
42 C<undef> as a string or a number. Well, usually. Boolean contexts,
47 are exempt from warnings (because they care about truth rather than
48 definedness). Operators such as C<++>, C<-->, C<+=>,
49 C<-=>, and C<.=>, that operate on undefined variables such as:
54 are also always exempt from such warnings.
56 A declaration can be put anywhere a statement can, but has no effect on
57 the execution of the primary sequence of statements: declarations all
58 take effect at compile time. All declarations are typically put at
59 the beginning or the end of the script. However, if you're using
60 lexically-scoped private variables created with C<my()>,
61 C<state()>, or C<our()>, you'll have to make sure
62 your format or subroutine definition is within the same block scope
63 as the my if you expect to be able to access those private variables.
65 Declaring a subroutine allows a subroutine name to be used as if it were a
66 list operator from that point forward in the program. You can declare a
67 subroutine without defining it by saying C<sub name>, thus:
68 X<subroutine, declaration>
71 $me = myname $0 or die "can't get myname";
73 A bare declaration like that declares the function to be a list operator,
74 not a unary operator, so you have to be careful to use parentheses (or
75 C<or> instead of C<||>.) The C<||> operator binds too tightly to use after
76 list operators; it becomes part of the last element. You can always use
77 parentheses around the list operators arguments to turn the list operator
78 back into something that behaves more like a function call. Alternatively,
79 you can use the prototype C<($)> to turn the subroutine into a unary
83 $me = myname $0 || die "can't get myname";
85 That now parses as you'd expect, but you still ought to get in the habit of
86 using parentheses in that situation. For more on prototypes, see
89 Subroutines declarations can also be loaded up with the C<require> statement
90 or both loaded and imported into your namespace with a C<use> statement.
91 See L<perlmod> for details on this.
93 A statement sequence may contain declarations of lexically-scoped
94 variables, but apart from declaring a variable name, the declaration acts
95 like an ordinary statement, and is elaborated within the sequence of
96 statements as if it were an ordinary statement. That means it actually
97 has both compile-time and run-time effects.
102 Text from a C<"#"> character until the end of the line is a comment,
103 and is ignored. Exceptions include C<"#"> inside a string or regular
106 =head2 Simple Statements
107 X<statement> X<semicolon> X<expression> X<;>
109 The only kind of simple statement is an expression evaluated for its
110 side-effects. Every simple statement must be terminated with a
111 semicolon, unless it is the final statement in a block, in which case
112 the semicolon is optional. But put the semicolon in anyway if the
113 block takes up more than one line, because you may eventually add
114 another line. Note that there are operators like C<eval {}>, C<sub {}>, and
115 C<do {}> that I<look> like compound statements, but aren't--they're just
116 TERMs in an expression--and thus need an explicit termination when used
117 as the last item in a statement.
119 =head2 Truth and Falsehood
120 X<truth> X<falsehood> X<true> X<false> X<!> X<not> X<negation> X<0>
122 The number 0, the strings C<'0'> and C<"">, the empty list C<()>, and
123 C<undef> are all false in a boolean context. All other values are true.
124 Negation of a true value by C<!> or C<not> returns a special false value.
125 When evaluated as a string it is treated as C<"">, but as a number, it
126 is treated as 0. Most Perl operators
127 that return true or false behave this way.
129 =head2 Statement Modifiers
130 X<statement modifier> X<modifier> X<if> X<unless> X<while>
131 X<until> X<when> X<foreach> X<for>
133 Any simple statement may optionally be followed by a I<SINGLE> modifier,
134 just before the terminating semicolon (or block ending). The possible
145 The C<EXPR> following the modifier is referred to as the "condition".
146 Its truth or falsehood determines how the modifier will behave.
148 C<if> executes the statement once I<if> and only if the condition is
149 true. C<unless> is the opposite, it executes the statement I<unless>
150 the condition is true (that is, if the condition is false).
152 print "Basset hounds got long ears" if length $ear >= 10;
153 go_outside() and play() unless $is_raining;
155 The C<for(each)> modifier is an iterator: it executes the statement once
156 for each item in the LIST (with C<$_> aliased to each item in turn).
158 print "Hello $_!\n" for qw(world Dolly nurse);
160 C<while> repeats the statement I<while> the condition is true.
161 C<until> does the opposite, it repeats the statement I<until> the
162 condition is true (or while the condition is false):
164 # Both of these count from 0 to 10.
165 print $i++ while $i <= 10;
166 print $j++ until $j > 10;
168 The C<while> and C<until> modifiers have the usual "C<while> loop"
169 semantics (conditional evaluated first), except when applied to a
170 C<do>-BLOCK (or to the Perl4 C<do>-SUBROUTINE statement), in
171 which case the block executes once before the conditional is
174 This is so that you can write loops like:
179 } until !defined($line) || $line eq ".\n"
181 See L<perlfunc/do>. Note also that the loop control statements described
182 later will I<NOT> work in this construct, because modifiers don't take
183 loop labels. Sorry. You can always put another block inside of it
184 (for C<next>) or around it (for C<last>) to do that sort of thing.
185 For C<next>, just double the braces:
186 X<next> X<last> X<redo>
193 For C<last>, you have to be more elaborate:
203 B<NOTE:> The behaviour of a C<my>, C<state>, or
204 C<our> modified with a statement modifier conditional
205 or loop construct (for example, C<my $x if ...>) is
206 B<undefined>. The value of the C<my> variable may be C<undef>, any
207 previously assigned value, or possibly anything else. Don't rely on
208 it. Future versions of perl might do something different from the
209 version of perl you try it out on. Here be dragons.
212 The C<when> modifier is an experimental feature that first appeared in Perl
213 5.14. To use it, you should include a C<use v5.14> declaration.
214 (Technically, it requires only the C<switch> feature, but that aspect of it
215 was not available before 5.14.) Operative only from within a C<foreach>
216 loop or a C<given> block, it executes the statement only if the smartmatch
217 C<< $_ ~~ I<EXPR> >> is true. If the statement executes, it is followed by
218 a C<next> from inside a C<foreach> and C<break> from inside a C<given>.
220 Under the current implementation, the C<foreach> loop can be
221 anywhere within the C<when> modifier's dynamic scope, but must be
222 within the C<given> block's lexical scope. This restricted may
223 be relaxed in a future release. See L<"Switch Statements"> below.
225 =head2 Compound Statements
226 X<statement, compound> X<block> X<bracket, curly> X<curly bracket> X<brace>
227 X<{> X<}> X<if> X<unless> X<given> X<while> X<until> X<foreach> X<for> X<continue>
229 In Perl, a sequence of statements that defines a scope is called a block.
230 Sometimes a block is delimited by the file containing it (in the case
231 of a required file, or the program as a whole), and sometimes a block
232 is delimited by the extent of a string (in the case of an eval).
234 But generally, a block is delimited by curly brackets, also known as braces.
235 We will call this syntactic construct a BLOCK.
237 The following compound statements may be used to control flow:
240 if (EXPR) BLOCK else BLOCK
241 if (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ...
242 if (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ... else BLOCK
245 unless (EXPR) BLOCK else BLOCK
246 unless (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ...
247 unless (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ... else BLOCK
251 LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK
252 LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK continue BLOCK
254 LABEL until (EXPR) BLOCK
255 LABEL until (EXPR) BLOCK continue BLOCK
257 LABEL for (EXPR; EXPR; EXPR) BLOCK
258 LABEL for VAR (LIST) BLOCK
259 LABEL for VAR (LIST) BLOCK continue BLOCK
261 LABEL foreach (EXPR; EXPR; EXPR) BLOCK
262 LABEL foreach VAR (LIST) BLOCK
263 LABEL foreach VAR (LIST) BLOCK continue BLOCK
266 LABEL BLOCK continue BLOCK
270 The experimental C<given> statement is I<not automatically enabled>; see
271 L</"Switch Statements"> below for how to do so, and the attendant caveats.
273 Unlike in C and Pascal, in Perl these are all defined in terms of BLOCKs,
274 not statements. This means that the curly brackets are I<required>--no
275 dangling statements allowed. If you want to write conditionals without
276 curly brackets, there are several other ways to do it. The following
277 all do the same thing:
279 if (!open(FOO)) { die "Can't open $FOO: $!" }
280 die "Can't open $FOO: $!" unless open(FOO);
281 open(FOO) || die "Can't open $FOO: $!";
282 open(FOO) ? () : die "Can't open $FOO: $!";
283 # a bit exotic, that last one
285 The C<if> statement is straightforward. Because BLOCKs are always
286 bounded by curly brackets, there is never any ambiguity about which
287 C<if> an C<else> goes with. If you use C<unless> in place of C<if>,
288 the sense of the test is reversed. Like C<if>, C<unless> can be followed
289 by C<else>. C<unless> can even be followed by one or more C<elsif>
290 statements, though you may want to think twice before using that particular
291 language construct, as everyone reading your code will have to think at least
292 twice before they can understand what's going on.
294 The C<while> statement executes the block as long as the expression is
295 L<true|/"Truth and Falsehood">.
296 The C<until> statement executes the block as long as the expression is
298 The LABEL is optional, and if present, consists of an identifier followed
299 by a colon. The LABEL identifies the loop for the loop control
300 statements C<next>, C<last>, and C<redo>.
301 If the LABEL is omitted, the loop control statement
302 refers to the innermost enclosing loop. This may include dynamically
303 looking back your call-stack at run time to find the LABEL. Such
304 desperate behavior triggers a warning if you use the C<use warnings>
305 pragma or the B<-w> flag.
307 If there is a C<continue> BLOCK, it is always executed just before the
308 conditional is about to be evaluated again. Thus it can be used to
309 increment a loop variable, even when the loop has been continued via
310 the C<next> statement.
312 When a block is preceding by a compilation phase keyword such as C<BEGIN>,
313 C<END>, C<INIT>, C<CHECK>, or C<UNITCHECK>, then the block will run only
314 during the corresponding phase of execution. See L<perlmod> for more details.
316 Extension modules can also hook into the Perl parser to define new
317 kinds of compound statements. These are introduced by a keyword which
318 the extension recognizes, and the syntax following the keyword is
319 defined entirely by the extension. If you are an implementor, see
320 L<perlapi/PL_keyword_plugin> for the mechanism. If you are using such
321 a module, see the module's documentation for details of the syntax that
325 X<loop control> X<loop, control> X<next> X<last> X<redo> X<continue>
327 The C<next> command starts the next iteration of the loop:
329 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
330 next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments
334 The C<last> command immediately exits the loop in question. The
335 C<continue> block, if any, is not executed:
337 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
338 last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header
342 The C<redo> command restarts the loop block without evaluating the
343 conditional again. The C<continue> block, if any, is I<not> executed.
344 This command is normally used by programs that want to lie to themselves
345 about what was just input.
347 For example, when processing a file like F</etc/termcap>.
348 If your input lines might end in backslashes to indicate continuation, you
349 want to skip ahead and get the next record.
360 which is Perl shorthand for the more explicitly written version:
362 LINE: while (defined($line = <ARGV>)) {
364 if ($line =~ s/\\$//) {
366 redo LINE unless eof(); # not eof(ARGV)!
371 Note that if there were a C<continue> block on the above code, it would
372 get executed only on lines discarded by the regex (since redo skips the
373 continue block). A continue block is often used to reset line counters
374 or C<m?pat?> one-time matches:
376 # inspired by :1,$g/fred/s//WILMA/
378 m?(fred)? && s//WILMA $1 WILMA/;
379 m?(barney)? && s//BETTY $1 BETTY/;
380 m?(homer)? && s//MARGE $1 MARGE/;
382 print "$ARGV $.: $_";
383 close ARGV if eof; # reset $.
384 reset if eof; # reset ?pat?
387 If the word C<while> is replaced by the word C<until>, the sense of the
388 test is reversed, but the conditional is still tested before the first
391 Loop control statements don't work in an C<if> or C<unless>, since
392 they aren't loops. You can double the braces to make them such, though.
396 next if /barney/; # same effect as "last",
397 # but doesn't document as well
401 This is caused by the fact that a block by itself acts as a loop that
402 executes once, see L<"Basic BLOCKs">.
404 The form C<while/if BLOCK BLOCK>, available in Perl 4, is no longer
405 available. Replace any occurrence of C<if BLOCK> by C<if (do BLOCK)>.
410 Perl's C-style C<for> loop works like the corresponding C<while> loop;
411 that means that this:
413 for ($i = 1; $i < 10; $i++) {
426 There is one minor difference: if variables are declared with C<my>
427 in the initialization section of the C<for>, the lexical scope of
428 those variables is exactly the C<for> loop (the body of the loop
429 and the control sections).
432 Besides the normal array index looping, C<for> can lend itself
433 to many other interesting applications. Here's one that avoids the
434 problem you get into if you explicitly test for end-of-file on
435 an interactive file descriptor causing your program to appear to
437 X<eof> X<end-of-file> X<end of file>
439 $on_a_tty = -t STDIN && -t STDOUT;
440 sub prompt { print "yes? " if $on_a_tty }
441 for ( prompt(); <STDIN>; prompt() ) {
445 Using C<readline> (or the operator form, C<< <EXPR> >>) as the
446 conditional of a C<for> loop is shorthand for the following. This
447 behaviour is the same as a C<while> loop conditional.
448 X<readline> X<< <> >>
450 for ( prompt(); defined( $_ = <STDIN> ); prompt() ) {
457 The C<foreach> loop iterates over a normal list value and sets the
458 variable VAR to be each element of the list in turn. If the variable
459 is preceded with the keyword C<my>, then it is lexically scoped, and
460 is therefore visible only within the loop. Otherwise, the variable is
461 implicitly local to the loop and regains its former value upon exiting
462 the loop. If the variable was previously declared with C<my>, it uses
463 that variable instead of the global one, but it's still localized to
464 the loop. This implicit localization occurs I<only> in a C<foreach>
468 The C<foreach> keyword is actually a synonym for the C<for> keyword, so
469 you can use either. If VAR is omitted, C<$_> is set to each value.
472 If any element of LIST is an lvalue, you can modify it by modifying
473 VAR inside the loop. Conversely, if any element of LIST is NOT an
474 lvalue, any attempt to modify that element will fail. In other words,
475 the C<foreach> loop index variable is an implicit alias for each item
476 in the list that you're looping over.
479 If any part of LIST is an array, C<foreach> will get very confused if
480 you add or remove elements within the loop body, for example with
481 C<splice>. So don't do that.
484 C<foreach> probably won't do what you expect if VAR is a tied or other
485 special variable. Don't do that either.
489 for (@ary) { s/foo/bar/ }
491 for my $elem (@elements) {
495 for $count (reverse(1..10), "BOOM") {
500 for (1..15) { print "Merry Christmas\n"; }
502 foreach $item (split(/:[\\\n:]*/, $ENV{TERMCAP})) {
503 print "Item: $item\n";
506 Here's how a C programmer might code up a particular algorithm in Perl:
508 for (my $i = 0; $i < @ary1; $i++) {
509 for (my $j = 0; $j < @ary2; $j++) {
510 if ($ary1[$i] > $ary2[$j]) {
511 last; # can't go to outer :-(
513 $ary1[$i] += $ary2[$j];
515 # this is where that last takes me
518 Whereas here's how a Perl programmer more comfortable with the idiom might
521 OUTER: for my $wid (@ary1) {
522 INNER: for my $jet (@ary2) {
523 next OUTER if $wid > $jet;
528 See how much easier this is? It's cleaner, safer, and faster. It's
529 cleaner because it's less noisy. It's safer because if code gets added
530 between the inner and outer loops later on, the new code won't be
531 accidentally executed. The C<next> explicitly iterates the other loop
532 rather than merely terminating the inner one. And it's faster because
533 Perl executes a C<foreach> statement more rapidly than it would the
534 equivalent C<for> loop.
536 Perceptive Perl hackers may have noticed that a C<for> loop has a return
537 value, and that this value can be captured by wrapping the loop in a C<do>
538 block. The reward for this discovery is this cautionary advice: The
539 return value of a C<for> loop is unspecified and may change without notice.
545 A BLOCK by itself (labeled or not) is semantically equivalent to a
546 loop that executes once. Thus you can use any of the loop control
547 statements in it to leave or restart the block. (Note that this is
548 I<NOT> true in C<eval{}>, C<sub{}>, or contrary to popular belief
549 C<do{}> blocks, which do I<NOT> count as loops.) The C<continue>
552 The BLOCK construct can be used to emulate case structures.
555 if (/^abc/) { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; }
556 if (/^def/) { $def = 1; last SWITCH; }
557 if (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; }
561 You'll also find that C<foreach> loop used to create a topicalizer
566 if (/^abc/) { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; }
567 if (/^def/) { $def = 1; last SWITCH; }
568 if (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; }
572 Such constructs are quite frequently used, both because older versions of
573 Perl had no official C<switch> statement, and also because the new version
574 described immediately below remains experimental and can sometimes be confusing.
576 =head2 Switch Statements
578 X<switch> X<case> X<given> X<when> X<default>
580 Starting from Perl 5.10.1 (well, 5.10.0, but it didn't work
583 use feature "switch";
585 to enable an experimental switch feature. This is loosely based on an
586 old version of a Perl 6 proposal, but it no longer resembles the Perl 6
587 construct. You also get the switch feature whenever you declare that your
588 code prefers to run under a version of Perl that is 5.10 or later. For
593 Under the "switch" feature, Perl gains the experimental keywords
594 C<given>, C<when>, C<default>, C<continue>, and C<break>.
595 Starting from Perl 5.16, one can prefix the switch
596 keywords with C<CORE::> to access the feature without a C<use feature>
597 statement. The keywords C<given> and
598 C<when> are analogous to C<switch> and
599 C<case> in other languages, so the code in the previous section could be
604 when (/^abc/) { $abc = 1 }
605 when (/^def/) { $def = 1 }
606 when (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1 }
607 default { $nothing = 1 }
610 The C<foreach> is the non-experimental way to set a topicalizer.
611 If you wish to use the highly experimental C<given>, that could be
616 when (/^abc/) { $abc = 1 }
617 when (/^def/) { $def = 1 }
618 when (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1 }
619 default { $nothing = 1 }
622 As of 5.14, that can also be written this way:
626 $abc = 1 when /^abc/;
627 $def = 1 when /^def/;
628 $xyz = 1 when /^xyz/;
629 default { $nothing = 1 }
632 Or if you don't care to play it safe, like this:
636 $abc = 1 when /^abc/;
637 $def = 1 when /^def/;
638 $xyz = 1 when /^xyz/;
639 default { $nothing = 1 }
642 The arguments to C<given> and C<when> are in scalar context,
643 and C<given> assigns the C<$_> variable its topic value.
645 Exactly what the I<EXPR> argument to C<when> does is hard to describe
646 precisely, but in general, it tries to guess what you want done. Sometimes
647 it is interpreted as C<< $_ ~~ I<EXPR> >>, and sometimes it is not. It
648 also behaves differently when lexically enclosed by a C<given> block than
649 it does when dynamically enclosed by a C<foreach> loop. The rules are far
650 too difficult to understand to be described here. See L</"Experimental Details
651 on given and when"> later on.
653 Due to an unfortunate bug in how C<given> was implemented between Perl 5.10
654 and 5.16, under those implementations the version of C<$_> governed by
655 C<given> is merely a lexically scoped copy of the original, not a
656 dynamically scoped alias to the original, as it would be if it were a
657 C<foreach> or under both the original and the current Perl 6 language
658 specification. This bug was fixed in Perl
659 5.18. If you really want a lexical C<$_>,
660 specify that explicitly, but note that C<my $_>
661 is now deprecated and will warn unless warnings
664 given(my $_ = EXPR) { ... }
666 If your code still needs to run on older versions,
667 stick to C<foreach> for your topicalizer and
668 you will be less unhappy.
673 Although not for the faint of heart, Perl does support a C<goto>
674 statement. There are three forms: C<goto>-LABEL, C<goto>-EXPR, and
675 C<goto>-&NAME. A loop's LABEL is not actually a valid target for
676 a C<goto>; it's just the name of the loop.
678 The C<goto>-LABEL form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes
679 execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that
680 requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a C<foreach> loop. It
681 also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away. It
682 can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope,
683 including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other
684 construct such as C<last> or C<die>. The author of Perl has never felt the
685 need to use this form of C<goto> (in Perl, that is--C is another matter).
687 The C<goto>-EXPR form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved
688 dynamically. This allows for computed C<goto>s per FORTRAN, but isn't
689 necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability:
691 goto(("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i]);
693 The C<goto>-&NAME form is highly magical, and substitutes a call to the
694 named subroutine for the currently running subroutine. This is used by
695 C<AUTOLOAD()> subroutines that wish to load another subroutine and then
696 pretend that the other subroutine had been called in the first place
697 (except that any modifications to C<@_> in the current subroutine are
698 propagated to the other subroutine.) After the C<goto>, not even C<caller()>
699 will be able to tell that this routine was called first.
701 In almost all cases like this, it's usually a far, far better idea to use the
702 structured control flow mechanisms of C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> instead of
703 resorting to a C<goto>. For certain applications, the catch and throw pair of
704 C<eval{}> and die() for exception processing can also be a prudent approach.
706 =head2 The Ellipsis Statement
710 X<elliptical statement>
711 X<unimplemented statement>
712 X<unimplemented operator>
714 X<yada-yada operator>
717 X<triple-dot operator>
719 Beginning in Perl 5.12, Perl accepts an ellipsis, "C<...>", as a
720 placeholder for code that you haven't implemented yet. This form of
721 ellipsis, the unimplemented statement, should not be confused with the
722 binary flip-flop C<...> operator. One is a statement and the other an
723 operator. (Perl doesn't usually confuse them because usually Perl can tell
724 whether it wants an operator or a statement, but see below for exceptions.)
726 When Perl 5.12 or later encounters an ellipsis statement, it parses this
727 without error, but if and when you should actually try to execute it, Perl
728 throws an exception with the text C<Unimplemented>:
731 sub unimplemented { ... }
732 eval { unimplemented() };
733 if ($@ =~ /^Unimplemented at /) {
734 say "I found an ellipsis!";
737 You can only use the elliptical statement to stand in for a
738 complete statement. These examples of how the ellipsis works:
756 The elliptical statement cannot stand in for an expression that
757 is part of a larger statement, since the C<...> is also the three-dot
758 version of the flip-flop operator (see L<perlop/"Range Operators">).
760 These examples of attempts to use an ellipsis are syntax errors:
765 open(my $fh, ">", "/dev/passwd") or ...;
766 if ($condition && ... ) { say "Howdy" };
768 There are some cases where Perl can't immediately tell the difference
769 between an expression and a statement. For instance, the syntax for a
770 block and an anonymous hash reference constructor look the same unless
771 there's something in the braces to give Perl a hint. The ellipsis is a
772 syntax error if Perl doesn't guess that the C<{ ... }> is a block. In that
773 case, it doesn't think the C<...> is an ellipsis because it's expecting an
774 expression instead of a statement:
776 @transformed = map { ... } @input; # syntax error
778 You can use a C<;> inside your block to denote that the C<{ ... }> is a
779 block and not a hash reference constructor. Now the ellipsis works:
781 @transformed = map {; ... } @input; # ; disambiguates
783 @transformed = map { ...; } @input; # ; disambiguates
785 Note: Some folks colloquially refer to this bit of punctuation as a
786 "yada-yada" or "triple-dot", but its true name
787 is actually an ellipsis. Perl does not yet
788 accept the Unicode version, U+2026 HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS, as an alias for
789 C<...>, but someday it may.
791 =head2 PODs: Embedded Documentation
792 X<POD> X<documentation>
794 Perl has a mechanism for intermixing documentation with source code.
795 While it's expecting the beginning of a new statement, if the compiler
796 encounters a line that begins with an equal sign and a word, like this
798 =head1 Here There Be Pods!
800 Then that text and all remaining text up through and including a line
801 beginning with C<=cut> will be ignored. The format of the intervening
802 text is described in L<perlpod>.
804 This allows you to intermix your source code
805 and your documentation text freely, as in
809 The snazzle() function will behave in the most spectacular
810 form that you can possibly imagine, not even excepting
811 cybernetic pyrotechnics.
813 =cut back to the compiler, nuff of this pod stuff!
820 Note that pod translators should look at only paragraphs beginning
821 with a pod directive (it makes parsing easier), whereas the compiler
822 actually knows to look for pod escapes even in the middle of a
823 paragraph. This means that the following secret stuff will be
824 ignored by both the compiler and the translators.
828 warn "Neither POD nor CODE!?"
832 You probably shouldn't rely upon the C<warn()> being podded out forever.
833 Not all pod translators are well-behaved in this regard, and perhaps
834 the compiler will become pickier.
836 One may also use pod directives to quickly comment out a section
839 =head2 Plain Old Comments (Not!)
840 X<comment> X<line> X<#> X<preprocessor> X<eval>
842 Perl can process line directives, much like the C preprocessor. Using
843 this, one can control Perl's idea of filenames and line numbers in
844 error or warning messages (especially for strings that are processed
845 with C<eval()>). The syntax for this mechanism is almost the same as for
846 most C preprocessors: it matches the regular expression
848 # example: '# line 42 "new_filename.plx"'
851 (?:\s("?)([^"]+)\g2)? \s*
854 with C<$1> being the line number for the next line, and C<$3> being
855 the optional filename (specified with or without quotes). Note that
856 no whitespace may precede the C<< # >>, unlike modern C preprocessors.
858 There is a fairly obvious gotcha included with the line directive:
859 Debuggers and profilers will only show the last source line to appear
860 at a particular line number in a given file. Care should be taken not
861 to cause line number collisions in code you'd like to debug later.
863 Here are some examples that you should be able to type into your command
868 # the '#' on the previous line must be the first char on line
871 foo at bzzzt line 201.
875 eval qq[\n#line 2001 ""\ndie 'foo']; print $@;
880 eval qq[\n#line 200 "foo bar"\ndie 'foo']; print $@;
882 foo at foo bar line 200.
886 eval "\n#line " . __LINE__ . ' "' . __FILE__ ."\"\ndie 'foo'";
889 foo at goop line 345.
891 =head2 Experimental Details on given and when
893 As previously mentioned, the "switch" feature is considered highly
894 experimental; it is subject to change with little notice. In particular,
895 C<when> has tricky behaviours that are expected to change to become less
896 tricky in the future. Do not rely upon its current (mis)implementation.
897 Before Perl 5.18, C<given> also had tricky behaviours that you should still
898 beware of if your code must run on older versions of Perl.
900 Here is a longer example of C<given>:
905 say '$foo is undefined';
908 say '$foo is the string "foo"';
911 say '$foo is an odd digit';
912 continue; # Fall through
915 say '$foo is numerically less than 100';
917 when (\&complicated_check) {
918 say 'a complicated check for $foo is true';
921 die q(I don't know what to do with $foo);
925 Before Perl 5.18, C<given(EXPR)> assigned the value of I<EXPR> to
926 merely a lexically scoped I<B<copy>> (!) of C<$_>, not a dynamically
927 scoped alias the way C<foreach> does. That made it similar to
929 do { my $_ = EXPR; ... }
931 except that the block was automatically broken out of by a successful
932 C<when> or an explicit C<break>. Because it was only a copy, and because
933 it was only lexically scoped, not dynamically scoped, you could not do the
934 things with it that you are used to in a C<foreach> loop. In particular,
935 it did not work for arbitrary function calls if those functions might try
936 to access $_. Best stick to C<foreach> for that.
938 Most of the power comes from the implicit smartmatching that can
939 sometimes apply. Most of the time, C<when(EXPR)> is treated as an
940 implicit smartmatch of C<$_>, that is, C<$_ ~~ EXPR>. (See
941 L<perlop/"Smartmatch Operator"> for more information on smartmatching.)
942 But when I<EXPR> is one of the 10 exceptional cases (or things like them)
943 listed below, it is used directly as a boolean.
949 A user-defined subroutine call or a method invocation.
953 A regular expression match in the form of C</REGEX/>, C<$foo =~ /REGEX/>,
954 or C<$foo =~ EXPR>. Also, a negated regular expression match in
955 the form C<!/REGEX/>, C<$foo !~ /REGEX/>, or C<$foo !~ EXPR>.
959 A smart match that uses an explicit C<~~> operator, such as C<EXPR ~~ EXPR>.
963 A boolean comparison operator such as C<$_ E<lt> 10> or C<$x eq "abc">. The
964 relational operators that this applies to are the six numeric comparisons
965 (C<< < >>, C<< > >>, C<< <= >>, C<< >= >>, C<< == >>, and C<< != >>), and
966 the six string comparisons (C<lt>, C<gt>, C<le>, C<ge>, C<eq>, and C<ne>).
968 B<NOTE:> You will often have to use C<$c ~~ $_> because
969 the default case uses C<$_ ~~ $c> , which is frequently
970 the opposite of what you want.
974 At least the three builtin functions C<defined(...)>, C<exists(...)>, and
975 C<eof(...)>. We might someday add more of these later if we think of them.
979 A negated expression, whether C<!(EXPR)> or C<not(EXPR)>, or a logical
980 exclusive-or, C<(EXPR1) xor (EXPR2)>. The bitwise versions (C<~> and C<^>)
985 A filetest operator, with exactly 4 exceptions: C<-s>, C<-M>, C<-A>, and
986 C<-C>, as these return numerical values, not boolean ones. The C<-z>
987 filetest operator is not included in the exception list.
991 The C<..> and C<...> flip-flop operators. Note that the C<...> flip-flop
992 operator is completely different from the C<...> elliptical statement
997 In those 8 cases above, the value of EXPR is used directly as a boolean, so
998 no smartmatching is done. You may think of C<when> as a smartsmartmatch.
1000 Furthermore, Perl inspects the operands of logical operators to
1001 decide whether to use smartmatching for each one by applying the
1002 above test to the operands:
1008 If EXPR is C<EXPR1 && EXPR2> or C<EXPR1 and EXPR2>, the test is applied
1009 I<recursively> to both EXPR1 and EXPR2.
1010 Only if I<both> operands also pass the
1011 test, I<recursively>, will the expression be treated as boolean. Otherwise,
1012 smartmatching is used.
1016 If EXPR is C<EXPR1 || EXPR2>, C<EXPR1 // EXPR2>, or C<EXPR1 or EXPR2>, the
1017 test is applied I<recursively> to EXPR1 only (which might itself be a
1018 higher-precedence AND operator, for example, and thus subject to the
1019 previous rule), not to EXPR2. If EXPR1 is to use smartmatching, then EXPR2
1020 also does so, no matter what EXPR2 contains. But if EXPR2 does not get to
1021 use smartmatching, then the second argument will not be either. This is
1022 quite different from the C<&&> case just described, so be careful.
1026 These rules are complicated, but the goal is for them to do what you want
1027 (even if you don't quite understand why they are doing it). For example:
1029 when (/^\d+$/ && $_ < 75) { ... }
1031 will be treated as a boolean match because the rules say both
1032 a regex match and an explicit test on C<$_> will be treated
1037 when ([qw(foo bar)] && /baz/) { ... }
1039 will use smartmatching because only I<one> of the operands is a boolean:
1040 the other uses smartmatching, and that wins.
1044 when ([qw(foo bar)] || /^baz/) { ... }
1046 will use smart matching (only the first operand is considered), whereas
1048 when (/^baz/ || [qw(foo bar)]) { ... }
1050 will test only the regex, which causes both operands to be
1051 treated as boolean. Watch out for this one, then, because an
1052 arrayref is always a true value, which makes it effectively
1053 redundant. Not a good idea.
1055 Tautologous boolean operators are still going to be optimized
1056 away. Don't be tempted to write
1058 when ("foo" or "bar") { ... }
1060 This will optimize down to C<"foo">, so C<"bar"> will never be considered (even
1061 though the rules say to use a smartmatch
1062 on C<"foo">). For an alternation like
1063 this, an array ref will work, because this will instigate smartmatching:
1065 when ([qw(foo bar)] { ... }
1067 This is somewhat equivalent to the C-style switch statement's fallthrough
1068 functionality (not to be confused with I<Perl's> fallthrough
1069 functionality--see below), wherein the same block is used for several
1072 Another useful shortcut is that, if you use a literal array or hash as the
1073 argument to C<given>, it is turned into a reference. So C<given(@foo)> is
1074 the same as C<given(\@foo)>, for example.
1076 C<default> behaves exactly like C<when(1 == 1)>, which is
1077 to say that it always matches.
1081 You can use the C<break> keyword to break out of the enclosing
1082 C<given> block. Every C<when> block is implicitly ended with
1087 You can use the C<continue> keyword to fall through from one
1091 when (/x/) { say '$foo contains an x'; continue }
1092 when (/y/) { say '$foo contains a y' }
1093 default { say '$foo does not contain a y' }
1098 When a C<given> statement is also a valid expression (for example,
1099 when it's the last statement of a block), it evaluates to:
1105 An empty list as soon as an explicit C<break> is encountered.
1109 The value of the last evaluated expression of the successful
1110 C<when>/C<default> clause, if there happens to be one.
1114 The value of the last evaluated expression of the C<given> block if no
1119 In both last cases, the last expression is evaluated in the context that
1120 was applied to the C<given> block.
1122 Note that, unlike C<if> and C<unless>, failed C<when> statements always
1123 evaluate to an empty list.
1127 when (["pear", "apple"]) { 1 }
1128 break when "vote"; # My vote cannot be bought
1129 1e10 when /Mona Lisa/;
1134 Currently, C<given> blocks can't always
1135 be used as proper expressions. This
1136 may be addressed in a future version of Perl.
1138 =head3 Switching in a loop
1140 Instead of using C<given()>, you can use a C<foreach()> loop.
1141 For example, here's one way to count how many times a particular
1142 string occurs in an array:
1147 when ("foo") { ++$count }
1149 print "\@array contains $count copies of 'foo'\n";
1151 Or in a more recent version:
1156 ++$count when "foo";
1158 print "\@array contains $count copies of 'foo'\n";
1160 At the end of all C<when> blocks, there is an implicit C<next>.
1161 You can override that with an explicit C<last> if you're
1162 interested in only the first match alone.
1164 This doesn't work if you explicitly specify a loop variable, as
1165 in C<for $item (@array)>. You have to use the default variable C<$_>.
1167 =head3 Differences from Perl 6
1169 The Perl 5 smartmatch and C<given>/C<when> constructs are not compatible
1170 with their Perl 6 analogues. The most visible difference and least
1171 important difference is that, in Perl 5, parentheses are required around
1172 the argument to C<given()> and C<when()> (except when this last one is used
1173 as a statement modifier). Parentheses in Perl 6 are always optional in a
1174 control construct such as C<if()>, C<while()>, or C<when()>; they can't be
1175 made optional in Perl 5 without a great deal of potential confusion,
1176 because Perl 5 would parse the expression
1182 as though the argument to C<given> were an element of the hash
1183 C<%foo>, interpreting the braces as hash-element syntax.
1185 However, their are many, many other differences. For example,
1186 this works in Perl 5:
1189 my @primary = ("red", "blue", "green");
1191 if (@primary ~~ "red") {
1192 say "primary smartmatches red";
1195 if ("red" ~~ @primary) {
1196 say "red smartmatches primary";
1199 say "that's all, folks!";
1201 But it doesn't work at all in Perl 6. Instead, you should
1202 use the (parallelizable) C<any> operator instead:
1204 if any(@primary) eq "red" {
1205 say "primary smartmatches red";
1208 if "red" eq any(@primary) {
1209 say "red smartmatches primary";
1212 The table of smartmatches in L<perlop/"Smartmatch Operator"> is not
1213 identical to that proposed by the Perl 6 specification, mainly due to
1214 differences between Perl 6's and Perl 5's data models, but also because
1215 the Perl 6 spec has changed since Perl 5 rushed into early adoption.
1217 In Perl 6, C<when()> will always do an implicit smartmatch with its
1218 argument, while in Perl 5 it is convenient (albeit potentially confusing) to
1219 suppress this implicit smartmatch in various rather loosely-defined
1220 situations, as roughly outlined above. (The difference is largely because
1221 Perl 5 does not have, even internally, a boolean type.)