3 perldata - Perl data types
8 X<variable, name> X<variable name> X<data type> X<type>
10 Perl has three built-in data types: scalars, arrays of scalars, and
11 associative arrays of scalars, known as "hashes". A scalar is a
12 single string (of any size, limited only by the available memory),
13 number, or a reference to something (which will be discussed
14 in L<perlref>). Normal arrays are ordered lists of scalars indexed
15 by number, starting with 0. Hashes are unordered collections of scalar
16 values indexed by their associated string key.
18 Values are usually referred to by name, or through a named reference.
19 The first character of the name tells you to what sort of data
20 structure it refers. The rest of the name tells you the particular
21 value to which it refers. Usually this name is a single I<identifier>,
22 that is, a string beginning with a letter or underscore, and
23 containing letters, underscores, and digits. In some cases, it may
24 be a chain of identifiers, separated by C<::> (or by the slightly
25 archaic C<'>); all but the last are interpreted as names of packages,
26 to locate the namespace in which to look up the final identifier
27 (see L<perlmod/Packages> for details). For a more in-depth discussion
28 on identifiers, see L<Identifier parsing>. It's possible to
29 substitute for a simple identifier, an expression that produces a reference
30 to the value at runtime. This is described in more detail below
34 Perl also has its own built-in variables whose names don't follow
35 these rules. They have strange names so they don't accidentally
36 collide with one of your normal variables. Strings that match
37 parenthesized parts of a regular expression are saved under names
38 containing only digits after the C<$> (see L<perlop> and L<perlre>).
39 In addition, several special variables that provide windows into
40 the inner working of Perl have names containing punctuation characters
41 and control characters. These are documented in L<perlvar>.
44 Scalar values are always named with '$', even when referring to a
45 scalar that is part of an array or a hash. The '$' symbol works
46 semantically like the English word "the" in that it indicates a
47 single value is expected.
50 $days # the simple scalar value "days"
51 $days[28] # the 29th element of array @days
52 $days{'Feb'} # the 'Feb' value from hash %days
53 $#days # the last index of array @days
55 Entire arrays (and slices of arrays and hashes) are denoted by '@',
56 which works much as the word "these" or "those" does in English,
57 in that it indicates multiple values are expected.
60 @days # ($days[0], $days[1],... $days[n])
61 @days[3,4,5] # same as ($days[3],$days[4],$days[5])
62 @days{'a','c'} # same as ($days{'a'},$days{'c'})
64 Entire hashes are denoted by '%':
67 %days # (key1, val1, key2, val2 ...)
69 In addition, subroutines are named with an initial '&', though this
70 is optional when unambiguous, just as the word "do" is often redundant
71 in English. Symbol table entries can be named with an initial '*',
72 but you don't really care about that yet (if ever :-).
74 Every variable type has its own namespace, as do several
75 non-variable identifiers. This means that you can, without fear
76 of conflict, use the same name for a scalar variable, an array, or
77 a hash--or, for that matter, for a filehandle, a directory handle, a
78 subroutine name, a format name, or a label. This means that $foo
79 and @foo are two different variables. It also means that C<$foo[1]>
80 is a part of @foo, not a part of $foo. This may seem a bit weird,
81 but that's okay, because it is weird.
84 Because variable references always start with '$', '@', or '%', the
85 "reserved" words aren't in fact reserved with respect to variable
86 names. They I<are> reserved with respect to labels and filehandles,
87 however, which don't have an initial special character. You can't
88 have a filehandle named "log", for instance. Hint: you could say
89 C<open(LOG,'logfile')> rather than C<open(log,'logfile')>. Using
90 uppercase filehandles also improves readability and protects you
91 from conflict with future reserved words. Case I<is> significant--"FOO",
92 "Foo", and "foo" are all different names. Names that start with a
93 letter or underscore may also contain digits and underscores.
94 X<identifier, case sensitivity>
97 It is possible to replace such an alphanumeric name with an expression
98 that returns a reference to the appropriate type. For a description
99 of this, see L<perlref>.
101 Names that start with a digit may contain only more digits. Names
102 that do not start with a letter, underscore, digit or a caret (i.e.
103 a control character) are limited to one character, e.g., C<$%> or
104 C<$$>. (Most of these one character names have a predefined
105 significance to Perl. For instance, C<$$> is the current process
108 =head2 Identifier parsing
111 Up until Perl 5.18, the actual rules of what a valid identifier
112 was were a bit fuzzy. However, in general, anything defined here should
113 work on previous versions of Perl, while the opposite -- edge cases
114 that work in previous versions, but aren't defined here -- probably
115 won't work on newer versions.
116 As an important side note, please note that the following only applies
117 to bareword identifiers as found in Perl source code, not identifiers
118 introduced through symbolic references, which have much fewer
120 If working under the effect of the C<use utf8;> pragma, the following
123 / (?[ ( \p{Word} & \p{XID_Start} ) + [_] ])
124 (?[ ( \p{Word} & \p{XID_Continue} ) ]) * /x
126 That is, a "start" character followed by any number of "continue"
127 characters. Perl requires every character in an identifier to also
128 match C<\w> (this prevents some problematic cases); and Perl
129 additionally accepts identfier names beginning with an underscore.
131 If not under C<use utf8>, the source is treated as ASCII + 128 extra
132 controls, and identifiers should match
134 / (?aa) (?!\d) \w+ /x
136 That is, any word character in the ASCII range, as long as the first
137 character is not a digit.
139 There are two package separators in Perl: A double colon (C<::>) and a single
140 quote (C<'>). Normal identifiers can start or end with a double colon, and
141 can contain several parts delimited by double colons.
142 Single quotes have similar rules, but with the exception that they are not
143 legal at the end of an identifier: That is, C<$'foo> and C<$foo'bar> are
144 legal, but C<$foo'bar'> is not.
146 Additionally, if the identifier is preceded by a sigil --
147 that is, if the identifier is part of a variable name -- it
148 may optionally be enclosed in braces.
150 While you can mix double colons with singles quotes, the quotes must come
151 after the colons: C<$::::'foo> and C<$foo::'bar> are legal, but C<$::'::foo>
152 and C<$foo'::bar> are not.
154 Put together, a grammar to match a basic identifier becomes
161 (?&normal_identifier)
162 | \{ \s* (?&normal_identifier) \s* \}
165 (?<normal_identifier>
168 (?: (?= (?: :: )+ '? | (?: :: )* ' ) (?&normal_identifier) )?
173 (?(?{ (caller(0))[8] & $utf8::hint_bits })
174 (?&Perl_XIDS) (?&Perl_XIDC)*
178 (?<sigil> [&*\$\@\%])
179 (?<Perl_XIDS> (?[ ( \p{Word} & \p{XID_Start} ) + [_] ]) )
180 (?<Perl_XIDC> (?[ \p{Word} & \p{XID_Continue} ]) )
184 Meanwhile, special identifiers don't follow the above rules; For the most
185 part, all of the identifiers in this category have a special meaning given
186 by Perl. Because they have special parsing rules, these generally can't be
187 fully-qualified. They come in four forms:
191 =item A sigil, followed solely by digits matching \p{POSIX_Digit}, like C<$0>,
194 =item A sigil, followed by either a caret and a single POSIX uppercase letter,
195 like C<$^V> or C<$^W>, or a sigil followed by a literal control character
196 matching the C<\p{POSIX_Cntrl}> property.
197 Due to a historical oddity, if not
198 running under C<use utf8>, the 128 extra controls in the C<[0x80-0xff]> range
199 may also be used in length one variables. The use of a literal control
200 character is deprecated. Support for this form will be removed in a future
203 =item Similar to the above, a sigil, followed by bareword text in brackets,
204 where the first character is either a caret followed by an uppercase letter,
205 or a literal control, like C<${^GLOBAL_PHASE}> or C<${\7LOBAL_PHASE}>. The use
206 of a literal control character is deprecated. Support for this form will be
207 removed in a future version of perl.
209 =item A sigil followed by a single character matching the C<\p{POSIX_Punct}>
210 property, like C<$!> or C<%+>.
214 Note that as of Perl 5.20, literal control characters in variable names
218 X<context> X<scalar context> X<list context>
220 The interpretation of operations and values in Perl sometimes depends
221 on the requirements of the context around the operation or value.
222 There are two major contexts: list and scalar. Certain operations
223 return list values in contexts wanting a list, and scalar values
224 otherwise. If this is true of an operation it will be mentioned in
225 the documentation for that operation. In other words, Perl overloads
226 certain operations based on whether the expected return value is
227 singular or plural. Some words in English work this way, like "fish"
230 In a reciprocal fashion, an operation provides either a scalar or a
231 list context to each of its arguments. For example, if you say
235 the integer operation provides scalar context for the <>
236 operator, which responds by reading one line from STDIN and passing it
237 back to the integer operation, which will then find the integer value
238 of that line and return that. If, on the other hand, you say
242 then the sort operation provides list context for <>, which
243 will proceed to read every line available up to the end of file, and
244 pass that list of lines back to the sort routine, which will then
245 sort those lines and return them as a list to whatever the context
248 Assignment is a little bit special in that it uses its left argument
249 to determine the context for the right argument. Assignment to a
250 scalar evaluates the right-hand side in scalar context, while
251 assignment to an array or hash evaluates the righthand side in list
252 context. Assignment to a list (or slice, which is just a list
253 anyway) also evaluates the right-hand side in list context.
255 When you use the C<use warnings> pragma or Perl's B<-w> command-line
256 option, you may see warnings
257 about useless uses of constants or functions in "void context".
258 Void context just means the value has been discarded, such as a
259 statement containing only C<"fred";> or C<getpwuid(0);>. It still
260 counts as scalar context for functions that care whether or not
261 they're being called in list context.
263 User-defined subroutines may choose to care whether they are being
264 called in a void, scalar, or list context. Most subroutines do not
265 need to bother, though. That's because both scalars and lists are
266 automatically interpolated into lists. See L<perlfunc/wantarray>
267 for how you would dynamically discern your function's calling
271 X<scalar> X<number> X<string> X<reference>
273 All data in Perl is a scalar, an array of scalars, or a hash of
274 scalars. A scalar may contain one single value in any of three
275 different flavors: a number, a string, or a reference. In general,
276 conversion from one form to another is transparent. Although a
277 scalar may not directly hold multiple values, it may contain a
278 reference to an array or hash which in turn contains multiple values.
280 Scalars aren't necessarily one thing or another. There's no place
281 to declare a scalar variable to be of type "string", type "number",
282 type "reference", or anything else. Because of the automatic
283 conversion of scalars, operations that return scalars don't need
284 to care (and in fact, cannot care) whether their caller is looking
285 for a string, a number, or a reference. Perl is a contextually
286 polymorphic language whose scalars can be strings, numbers, or
287 references (which includes objects). Although strings and numbers
288 are considered pretty much the same thing for nearly all purposes,
289 references are strongly-typed, uncastable pointers with builtin
290 reference-counting and destructor invocation.
292 A scalar value is interpreted as FALSE in the Boolean sense
293 if it is undefined, the null string or the number 0 (or its
294 string equivalent, "0"), and TRUE if it is anything else. The
295 Boolean context is just a special kind of scalar context where no
296 conversion to a string or a number is ever performed.
297 X<boolean> X<bool> X<true> X<false> X<truth>
299 There are actually two varieties of null strings (sometimes referred
300 to as "empty" strings), a defined one and an undefined one. The
301 defined version is just a string of length zero, such as C<"">.
302 The undefined version is the value that indicates that there is
303 no real value for something, such as when there was an error, or
304 at end of file, or when you refer to an uninitialized variable or
305 element of an array or hash. Although in early versions of Perl,
306 an undefined scalar could become defined when first used in a
307 place expecting a defined value, this no longer happens except for
308 rare cases of autovivification as explained in L<perlref>. You can
309 use the defined() operator to determine whether a scalar value is
310 defined (this has no meaning on arrays or hashes), and the undef()
311 operator to produce an undefined value.
312 X<defined> X<undefined> X<undef> X<null> X<string, null>
314 To find out whether a given string is a valid non-zero number, it's
315 sometimes enough to test it against both numeric 0 and also lexical
316 "0" (although this will cause noises if warnings are on). That's
317 because strings that aren't numbers count as 0, just as they do in B<awk>:
319 if ($str == 0 && $str ne "0") {
320 warn "That doesn't look like a number";
323 That method may be best because otherwise you won't treat IEEE
324 notations like C<NaN> or C<Infinity> properly. At other times, you
325 might prefer to determine whether string data can be used numerically
326 by calling the POSIX::strtod() function or by inspecting your string
327 with a regular expression (as documented in L<perlre>).
329 warn "has nondigits" if /\D/;
330 warn "not a natural number" unless /^\d+$/; # rejects -3
331 warn "not an integer" unless /^-?\d+$/; # rejects +3
332 warn "not an integer" unless /^[+-]?\d+$/;
333 warn "not a decimal number" unless /^-?\d+\.?\d*$/; # rejects .2
334 warn "not a decimal number" unless /^-?(?:\d+(?:\.\d*)?|\.\d+)$/;
336 unless /^([+-]?)(?=\d|\.\d)\d*(\.\d*)?([Ee]([+-]?\d+))?$/;
338 The length of an array is a scalar value. You may find the length
339 of array @days by evaluating C<$#days>, as in B<csh>. However, this
340 isn't the length of the array; it's the subscript of the last element,
341 which is a different value since there is ordinarily a 0th element.
342 Assigning to C<$#days> actually changes the length of the array.
343 Shortening an array this way destroys intervening values. Lengthening
344 an array that was previously shortened does not recover values
345 that were in those elements.
346 X<$#> X<array, length>
348 You can also gain some minuscule measure of efficiency by pre-extending
349 an array that is going to get big. You can also extend an array
350 by assigning to an element that is off the end of the array. You
351 can truncate an array down to nothing by assigning the null list
352 () to it. The following are equivalent:
357 If you evaluate an array in scalar context, it returns the length
358 of the array. (Note that this is not true of lists, which return
359 the last value, like the C comma operator, nor of built-in functions,
360 which return whatever they feel like returning.) The following is
364 scalar(@whatever) == $#whatever + 1;
366 Some programmers choose to use an explicit conversion so as to
367 leave nothing to doubt:
369 $element_count = scalar(@whatever);
371 If you evaluate a hash in scalar context, it returns false if the
372 hash is empty. If there are any key/value pairs, it returns true;
373 more precisely, the value returned is a string consisting of the
374 number of used buckets and the number of allocated buckets, separated
375 by a slash. This is pretty much useful only to find out whether
376 Perl's internal hashing algorithm is performing poorly on your data
377 set. For example, you stick 10,000 things in a hash, but evaluating
378 %HASH in scalar context reveals C<"1/16">, which means only one out
379 of sixteen buckets has been touched, and presumably contains all
380 10,000 of your items. This isn't supposed to happen. If a tied hash
381 is evaluated in scalar context, the C<SCALAR> method is called (with a
382 fallback to C<FIRSTKEY>).
383 X<hash, scalar context> X<hash, bucket> X<bucket>
385 You can preallocate space for a hash by assigning to the keys() function.
386 This rounds up the allocated buckets to the next power of two:
388 keys(%users) = 1000; # allocate 1024 buckets
390 =head2 Scalar value constructors
391 X<scalar, literal> X<scalar, constant>
393 Numeric literals are specified in any of the following floating point or
398 .23E-10 # a very small number
399 3.14_15_92 # a very important number
400 4_294_967_296 # underscore for legibility
402 0xdead_beef # more hex
403 0377 # octal (only numbers, begins with 0)
405 0x1.999ap-4 # hexadecimal floating point (the 'p' is required)
407 You are allowed to use underscores (underbars) in numeric literals
408 between digits for legibility (but not multiple underscores in a row:
409 C<23__500> is not legal; C<23_500> is).
410 You could, for example, group binary
411 digits by threes (as for a Unix-style mode argument such as 0b110_100_100)
412 or by fours (to represent nibbles, as in 0b1010_0110) or in other groups.
415 String literals are usually delimited by either single or double
416 quotes. They work much like quotes in the standard Unix shells:
417 double-quoted string literals are subject to backslash and variable
418 substitution; single-quoted strings are not (except for C<\'> and
419 C<\\>). The usual C-style backslash rules apply for making
420 characters such as newline, tab, etc., as well as some more exotic
421 forms. See L<perlop/"Quote and Quote-like Operators"> for a list.
424 Hexadecimal, octal, or binary, representations in string literals
425 (e.g. '0xff') are not automatically converted to their integer
426 representation. The hex() and oct() functions make these conversions
427 for you. See L<perlfunc/hex> and L<perlfunc/oct> for more details.
429 Hexadecimal floating point can start just like a hexadecimal literal,
430 and it can be followed by an optional fractional hexadecimal part,
431 but it must be followed by C<p>, an optional sign, and a power of two.
432 The format is useful for accurately presenting floating point values,
433 avoiding conversions to or from decimal floating point, and therefore
434 avoiding possible loss in precision. Notice that while most current
435 platforms use the 64-bit IEEE 754 floating point, not all do. Another
436 potential source of (low-order) differences are the floating point
437 rounding modes, which can differ between CPUs, operating systems,
438 and compilers, and which Perl doesn't control.
440 You can also embed newlines directly in your strings, i.e., they can end
441 on a different line than they begin. This is nice, but if you forget
442 your trailing quote, the error will not be reported until Perl finds
443 another line containing the quote character, which may be much further
444 on in the script. Variable substitution inside strings is limited to
445 scalar variables, arrays, and array or hash slices. (In other words,
446 names beginning with $ or @, followed by an optional bracketed
447 expression as a subscript.) The following code segment prints out "The
451 $Price = '$100'; # not interpolated
452 print "The price is $Price.\n"; # interpolated
454 There is no double interpolation in Perl, so the C<$100> is left as is.
456 By default floating point numbers substituted inside strings use the
457 dot (".") as the decimal separator. If C<use locale> is in effect,
458 and POSIX::setlocale() has been called, the character used for the
459 decimal separator is affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale.
460 See L<perllocale> and L<POSIX>.
462 As in some shells, you can enclose the variable name in braces to
463 disambiguate it from following alphanumerics (and underscores).
465 this when interpolating a variable into a string to separate the
466 variable name from a following double-colon or an apostrophe, since
467 these would be otherwise treated as a package separator:
471 print PASSWD "${who}::0:0:Superuser:/:/bin/perl\n";
472 print "We use ${who}speak when ${who}'s here.\n";
474 Without the braces, Perl would have looked for a $whospeak, a
475 C<$who::0>, and a C<$who's> variable. The last two would be the
476 $0 and the $s variables in the (presumably) non-existent package
479 In fact, a simple identifier within such curlies is forced to be
480 a string, and likewise within a hash subscript. Neither need
481 quoting. Our earlier example, C<$days{'Feb'}> can be written as
482 C<$days{Feb}> and the quotes will be assumed automatically. But
483 anything more complicated in the subscript will be interpreted as an
484 expression. This means for example that C<$version{2.0}++> is
485 equivalent to C<$version{2}++>, not to C<$version{'2.0'}++>.
487 =head3 Version Strings
488 X<version string> X<vstring> X<v-string>
490 A literal of the form C<v1.20.300.4000> is parsed as a string composed
491 of characters with the specified ordinals. This form, known as
492 v-strings, provides an alternative, more readable way to construct
493 strings, rather than use the somewhat less readable interpolation form
494 C<"\x{1}\x{14}\x{12c}\x{fa0}">. This is useful for representing
495 Unicode strings, and for comparing version "numbers" using the string
496 comparison operators, C<cmp>, C<gt>, C<lt> etc. If there are two or
497 more dots in the literal, the leading C<v> may be omitted.
499 print v9786; # prints SMILEY, "\x{263a}"
500 print v102.111.111; # prints "foo"
501 print 102.111.111; # same
503 Such literals are accepted by both C<require> and C<use> for
504 doing a version check. Note that using the v-strings for IPv4
505 addresses is not portable unless you also use the
506 inet_aton()/inet_ntoa() routines of the Socket package.
508 Note that since Perl 5.8.1 the single-number v-strings (like C<v65>)
509 are not v-strings before the C<< => >> operator (which is usually used
510 to separate a hash key from a hash value); instead they are interpreted
511 as literal strings ('v65'). They were v-strings from Perl 5.6.0 to
512 Perl 5.8.0, but that caused more confusion and breakage than good.
513 Multi-number v-strings like C<v65.66> and C<65.66.67> continue to
516 =head3 Special Literals
517 X<special literal> X<__END__> X<__DATA__> X<END> X<DATA>
518 X<end> X<data> X<^D> X<^Z>
520 The special literals __FILE__, __LINE__, and __PACKAGE__
521 represent the current filename, line number, and package name at that
522 point in your program. __SUB__ gives a reference to the current
523 subroutine. They may be used only as separate tokens; they
524 will not be interpolated into strings. If there is no current package
525 (due to an empty C<package;> directive), __PACKAGE__ is the undefined
526 value. (But the empty C<package;> is no longer supported, as of version
527 5.10.) Outside of a subroutine, __SUB__ is the undefined value. __SUB__
528 is only available in 5.16 or higher, and only with a C<use v5.16> or
529 C<use feature "current_sub"> declaration.
530 X<__FILE__> X<__LINE__> X<__PACKAGE__> X<__SUB__>
531 X<line> X<file> X<package>
533 The two control characters ^D and ^Z, and the tokens __END__ and __DATA__
534 may be used to indicate the logical end of the script before the actual
535 end of file. Any following text is ignored.
537 Text after __DATA__ may be read via the filehandle C<PACKNAME::DATA>,
538 where C<PACKNAME> is the package that was current when the __DATA__
539 token was encountered. The filehandle is left open pointing to the
540 line after __DATA__. The program should C<close DATA> when it is done
541 reading from it. (Leaving it open leaks filehandles if the module is
542 reloaded for any reason, so it's a safer practice to close it.) For
543 compatibility with older scripts written before __DATA__ was
544 introduced, __END__ behaves like __DATA__ in the top level script (but
545 not in files loaded with C<require> or C<do>) and leaves the remaining
546 contents of the file accessible via C<main::DATA>.
548 See L<SelfLoader> for more description of __DATA__, and
549 an example of its use. Note that you cannot read from the DATA
550 filehandle in a BEGIN block: the BEGIN block is executed as soon
551 as it is seen (during compilation), at which point the corresponding
552 __DATA__ (or __END__) token has not yet been seen.
557 A word that has no other interpretation in the grammar will
558 be treated as if it were a quoted string. These are known as
559 "barewords". As with filehandles and labels, a bareword that consists
560 entirely of lowercase letters risks conflict with future reserved
561 words, and if you use the C<use warnings> pragma or the B<-w> switch,
562 Perl will warn you about any such words. Perl limits barewords (like
563 identifiers) to about 250 characters. Future versions of Perl are likely
564 to eliminate these arbitrary limitations.
566 Some people may wish to outlaw barewords entirely. If you
571 then any bareword that would NOT be interpreted as a subroutine call
572 produces a compile-time error instead. The restriction lasts to the
573 end of the enclosing block. An inner block may countermand this
574 by saying C<no strict 'subs'>.
576 =head3 Array Interpolation
577 X<array, interpolation> X<interpolation, array> X<$">
579 Arrays and slices are interpolated into double-quoted strings
580 by joining the elements with the delimiter specified in the C<$">
581 variable (C<$LIST_SEPARATOR> if "use English;" is specified),
582 space by default. The following are equivalent:
584 $temp = join($", @ARGV);
589 Within search patterns (which also undergo double-quotish substitution)
590 there is an unfortunate ambiguity: Is C</$foo[bar]/> to be interpreted as
591 C</${foo}[bar]/> (where C<[bar]> is a character class for the regular
592 expression) or as C</${foo[bar]}/> (where C<[bar]> is the subscript to array
593 @foo)? If @foo doesn't otherwise exist, then it's obviously a
594 character class. If @foo exists, Perl takes a good guess about C<[bar]>,
595 and is almost always right. If it does guess wrong, or if you're just
596 plain paranoid, you can force the correct interpretation with curly
599 If you're looking for the information on how to use here-documents,
600 which used to be here, that's been moved to
601 L<perlop/Quote and Quote-like Operators>.
603 =head2 List value constructors
606 List values are denoted by separating individual values by commas
607 (and enclosing the list in parentheses where precedence requires it):
611 In a context not requiring a list value, the value of what appears
612 to be a list literal is simply the value of the final element, as
613 with the C comma operator. For example,
615 @foo = ('cc', '-E', $bar);
617 assigns the entire list value to array @foo, but
619 $foo = ('cc', '-E', $bar);
621 assigns the value of variable $bar to the scalar variable $foo.
622 Note that the value of an actual array in scalar context is the
623 length of the array; the following assigns the value 3 to $foo:
625 @foo = ('cc', '-E', $bar);
626 $foo = @foo; # $foo gets 3
628 You may have an optional comma before the closing parenthesis of a
629 list literal, so that you can say:
637 To use a here-document to assign an array, one line per element,
638 you might use an approach like this:
640 @sauces = <<End_Lines =~ m/(\S.*\S)/g;
648 LISTs do automatic interpolation of sublists. That is, when a LIST is
649 evaluated, each element of the list is evaluated in list context, and
650 the resulting list value is interpolated into LIST just as if each
651 individual element were a member of LIST. Thus arrays and hashes lose their
652 identity in a LIST--the list
654 (@foo,@bar,&SomeSub,%glarch)
656 contains all the elements of @foo followed by all the elements of @bar,
657 followed by all the elements returned by the subroutine named SomeSub
658 called in list context, followed by the key/value pairs of %glarch.
659 To make a list reference that does I<NOT> interpolate, see L<perlref>.
661 The null list is represented by (). Interpolating it in a list
662 has no effect. Thus ((),(),()) is equivalent to (). Similarly,
663 interpolating an array with no elements is the same as if no
664 array had been interpolated at that point.
666 This interpolation combines with the facts that the opening
667 and closing parentheses are optional (except when necessary for
668 precedence) and lists may end with an optional comma to mean that
669 multiple commas within lists are legal syntax. The list C<1,,3> is a
670 concatenation of two lists, C<1,> and C<3>, the first of which ends
671 with that optional comma. C<1,,3> is C<(1,),(3)> is C<1,3> (And
672 similarly for C<1,,,3> is C<(1,),(,),3> is C<1,3> and so on.) Not that
673 we'd advise you to use this obfuscation.
675 A list value may also be subscripted like a normal array. You must
676 put the list in parentheses to avoid ambiguity. For example:
678 # Stat returns list value.
679 $time = (stat($file))[8];
682 $time = stat($file)[8]; # OOPS, FORGOT PARENTHESES
685 $hexdigit = ('a','b','c','d','e','f')[$digit-10];
687 # A "reverse comma operator".
688 return (pop(@foo),pop(@foo))[0];
690 Lists may be assigned to only when each element of the list
691 is itself legal to assign to:
693 ($a, $b, $c) = (1, 2, 3);
695 ($map{'red'}, $map{'blue'}, $map{'green'}) = (0x00f, 0x0f0, 0xf00);
697 An exception to this is that you may assign to C<undef> in a list.
698 This is useful for throwing away some of the return values of a
701 ($dev, $ino, undef, undef, $uid, $gid) = stat($file);
703 List assignment in scalar context returns the number of elements
704 produced by the expression on the right side of the assignment:
706 $x = (($foo,$bar) = (3,2,1)); # set $x to 3, not 2
707 $x = (($foo,$bar) = f()); # set $x to f()'s return count
709 This is handy when you want to do a list assignment in a Boolean
710 context, because most list functions return a null list when finished,
711 which when assigned produces a 0, which is interpreted as FALSE.
713 It's also the source of a useful idiom for executing a function or
714 performing an operation in list context and then counting the number of
715 return values, by assigning to an empty list and then using that
716 assignment in scalar context. For example, this code:
718 $count = () = $string =~ /\d+/g;
720 will place into $count the number of digit groups found in $string.
721 This happens because the pattern match is in list context (since it
722 is being assigned to the empty list), and will therefore return a list
723 of all matching parts of the string. The list assignment in scalar
724 context will translate that into the number of elements (here, the
725 number of times the pattern matched) and assign that to $count. Note
728 $count = $string =~ /\d+/g;
730 would not have worked, since a pattern match in scalar context will
731 only return true or false, rather than a count of matches.
733 The final element of a list assignment may be an array or a hash:
735 ($a, $b, @rest) = split;
736 my($a, $b, %rest) = @_;
738 You can actually put an array or hash anywhere in the list, but the first one
739 in the list will soak up all the values, and anything after it will become
740 undefined. This may be useful in a my() or local().
742 A hash can be initialized using a literal list holding pairs of
743 items to be interpreted as a key and a value:
745 # same as map assignment above
746 %map = ('red',0x00f,'blue',0x0f0,'green',0xf00);
748 While literal lists and named arrays are often interchangeable, that's
749 not the case for hashes. Just because you can subscript a list value like
750 a normal array does not mean that you can subscript a list value as a
751 hash. Likewise, hashes included as parts of other lists (including
752 parameters lists and return lists from functions) always flatten out into
753 key/value pairs. That's why it's good to use references sometimes.
755 It is often more readable to use the C<< => >> operator between key/value
756 pairs. The C<< => >> operator is mostly just a more visually distinctive
757 synonym for a comma, but it also arranges for its left-hand operand to be
758 interpreted as a string if it's a bareword that would be a legal simple
759 identifier. C<< => >> doesn't quote compound identifiers, that contain
760 double colons. This makes it nice for initializing hashes:
768 or for initializing hash references to be used as records:
771 witch => 'Mable the Merciless',
772 cat => 'Fluffy the Ferocious',
773 date => '10/31/1776',
776 or for using call-by-named-parameter to complicated functions:
778 $field = $query->radio_group(
779 name => 'group_name',
780 values => ['eenie','meenie','minie'],
786 Note that just because a hash is initialized in that order doesn't
787 mean that it comes out in that order. See L<perlfunc/sort> for examples
788 of how to arrange for an output ordering.
790 If a key appears more than once in the initializer list of a hash, the last
797 color => [0xDF, 0xFF, 0x00],
804 color => [0xDF, 0xFF, 0x00],
808 This can be used to provide overridable configuration defaults:
810 # values in %args take priority over %config_defaults
811 %config = (%config_defaults, %args);
815 An array can be accessed one scalar at a
816 time by specifying a dollar sign (C<$>), then the
817 name of the array (without the leading C<@>), then the subscript inside
818 square brackets. For example:
820 @myarray = (5, 50, 500, 5000);
821 print "The Third Element is", $myarray[2], "\n";
823 The array indices start with 0. A negative subscript retrieves its
824 value from the end. In our example, C<$myarray[-1]> would have been
825 5000, and C<$myarray[-2]> would have been 500.
827 Hash subscripts are similar, only instead of square brackets curly brackets
828 are used. For example:
833 "Einstein" => "Albert",
834 "Darwin" => "Charles",
835 "Feynman" => "Richard",
838 print "Darwin's First Name is ", $scientists{"Darwin"}, "\n";
840 You can also subscript a list to get a single element from it:
842 $dir = (getpwnam("daemon"))[7];
844 =head2 Multi-dimensional array emulation
846 Multidimensional arrays may be emulated by subscripting a hash with a
847 list. The elements of the list are joined with the subscript separator
854 $foo{join($;, $a, $b, $c)}
856 The default subscript separator is "\034", the same as SUBSEP in B<awk>.
859 X<slice> X<array, slice> X<hash, slice>
861 A slice accesses several elements of a list, an array, or a hash
862 simultaneously using a list of subscripts. It's more convenient
863 than writing out the individual elements as a list of separate
866 ($him, $her) = @folks[0,-1]; # array slice
867 @them = @folks[0 .. 3]; # array slice
868 ($who, $home) = @ENV{"USER", "HOME"}; # hash slice
869 ($uid, $dir) = (getpwnam("daemon"))[2,7]; # list slice
871 Since you can assign to a list of variables, you can also assign to
872 an array or hash slice.
874 @days[3..5] = qw/Wed Thu Fri/;
875 @colors{'red','blue','green'}
876 = (0xff0000, 0x0000ff, 0x00ff00);
877 @folks[0, -1] = @folks[-1, 0];
879 The previous assignments are exactly equivalent to
881 ($days[3], $days[4], $days[5]) = qw/Wed Thu Fri/;
882 ($colors{'red'}, $colors{'blue'}, $colors{'green'})
883 = (0xff0000, 0x0000ff, 0x00ff00);
884 ($folks[0], $folks[-1]) = ($folks[-1], $folks[0]);
886 Since changing a slice changes the original array or hash that it's
887 slicing, a C<foreach> construct will alter some--or even all--of the
888 values of the array or hash.
890 foreach (@array[ 4 .. 10 ]) { s/peter/paul/ }
892 foreach (@hash{qw[key1 key2]}) {
893 s/^\s+//; # trim leading whitespace
894 s/\s+$//; # trim trailing whitespace
895 s/(\w+)/\u\L$1/g; # "titlecase" words
898 A slice of an empty list is still an empty list. Thus:
900 @a = ()[1,0]; # @a has no elements
901 @b = (@a)[0,1]; # @b has no elements
905 @a = (1)[1,0]; # @a has two elements
906 @b = (1,undef)[1,0,2]; # @b has three elements
908 More generally, a slice yields the empty list if it indexes only
909 beyond the end of a list:
911 @a = (1)[ 1,2]; # @a has no elements
912 @b = (1)[0,1,2]; # @b has three elements
914 This makes it easy to write loops that terminate when a null list
917 while ( ($home, $user) = (getpwent)[7,0]) {
918 printf "%-8s %s\n", $user, $home;
921 As noted earlier in this document, the scalar sense of list assignment
922 is the number of elements on the right-hand side of the assignment.
923 The null list contains no elements, so when the password file is
924 exhausted, the result is 0, not 2.
926 Slices in scalar context return the last item of the slice.
928 @a = qw/first second third/;
929 %h = (first => 'A', second => 'B');
930 $t = @a[0, 1]; # $t is now 'second'
931 $u = @h{'first', 'second'}; # $u is now 'B'
933 If you're confused about why you use an '@' there on a hash slice
934 instead of a '%', think of it like this. The type of bracket (square
935 or curly) governs whether it's an array or a hash being looked at.
936 On the other hand, the leading symbol ('$' or '@') on the array or
937 hash indicates whether you are getting back a singular value (a
938 scalar) or a plural one (a list).
940 =head3 Key/Value Hash Slices
942 Starting in Perl 5.20, a hash slice operation
943 with the % symbol is a variant of slice operation
944 returning a list of key/value pairs rather than just values:
946 %h = (blonk => 2, foo => 3, squink => 5, bar => 8);
947 %subset = %h{'foo', 'bar'}; # key/value hash slice
948 # %subset is now (foo => 3, bar => 8)
950 However, the result of such a slice cannot be localized, deleted or used
951 in assignment. These are otherwise very much consistent with hash slices
954 =head3 Index/Value Array Slices
956 Similar to key/value hash slices (and also introduced
957 in Perl 5.20), the % array slice syntax returns a list
958 of index/value pairs:
962 # @list is now (3, "d", 4, "e", 6, "g")
964 =head2 Typeglobs and Filehandles
965 X<typeglob> X<filehandle> X<*>
967 Perl uses an internal type called a I<typeglob> to hold an entire
968 symbol table entry. The type prefix of a typeglob is a C<*>, because
969 it represents all types. This used to be the preferred way to
970 pass arrays and hashes by reference into a function, but now that
971 we have real references, this is seldom needed.
973 The main use of typeglobs in modern Perl is create symbol table aliases.
978 makes $this an alias for $that, @this an alias for @that, %this an alias
979 for %that, &this an alias for &that, etc. Much safer is to use a reference.
982 local *Here::blue = \$There::green;
984 temporarily makes $Here::blue an alias for $There::green, but doesn't
985 make @Here::blue an alias for @There::green, or %Here::blue an alias for
986 %There::green, etc. See L<perlmod/"Symbol Tables"> for more examples
987 of this. Strange though this may seem, this is the basis for the whole
988 module import/export system.
990 Another use for typeglobs is to pass filehandles into a function or
991 to create new filehandles. If you need to use a typeglob to save away
992 a filehandle, do it this way:
996 or perhaps as a real reference, like this:
1000 See L<perlsub> for examples of using these as indirect filehandles
1003 Typeglobs are also a way to create a local filehandle using the local()
1004 operator. These last until their block is exited, but may be passed back.
1009 local *FH; # not my!
1010 open (FH, $path) or return undef;
1013 $fh = newopen('/etc/passwd');
1015 Now that we have the C<*foo{THING}> notation, typeglobs aren't used as much
1016 for filehandle manipulations, although they're still needed to pass brand
1017 new file and directory handles into or out of functions. That's because
1018 C<*HANDLE{IO}> only works if HANDLE has already been used as a handle.
1019 In other words, C<*FH> must be used to create new symbol table entries;
1020 C<*foo{THING}> cannot. When in doubt, use C<*FH>.
1022 All functions that are capable of creating filehandles (open(),
1023 opendir(), pipe(), socketpair(), sysopen(), socket(), and accept())
1024 automatically create an anonymous filehandle if the handle passed to
1025 them is an uninitialized scalar variable. This allows the constructs
1026 such as C<open(my $fh, ...)> and C<open(local $fh,...)> to be used to
1027 create filehandles that will conveniently be closed automatically when
1028 the scope ends, provided there are no other references to them. This
1029 largely eliminates the need for typeglobs when opening filehandles
1030 that must be passed around, as in the following example:
1034 or die "Can't open '@_': $!";
1039 my $f = myopen("</etc/motd");
1041 # $f implicitly closed here
1044 Note that if an initialized scalar variable is used instead the
1045 result is different: C<my $fh='zzz'; open($fh, ...)> is equivalent
1046 to C<open( *{'zzz'}, ...)>.
1047 C<use strict 'refs'> forbids such practice.
1049 Another way to create anonymous filehandles is with the Symbol
1050 module or with the IO::Handle module and its ilk. These modules
1051 have the advantage of not hiding different types of the same name
1052 during the local(). See the bottom of L<perlfunc/open> for an
1057 See L<perlvar> for a description of Perl's built-in variables and
1058 a discussion of legal variable names. See L<perlref>, L<perlsub>,
1059 and L<perlmod/"Symbol Tables"> for more discussion on typeglobs and
1060 the C<*foo{THING}> syntax.