8 A Perl program consists of a sequence of declarations and statements
9 which run from the top to the bottom. Loops, subroutines and other
10 control structures allow you to jump around within the code.
12 Perl is a B<free-form> language, you can format and indent it however
13 you like. Whitespace mostly serves to separate tokens, unlike
14 languages like Python where it is an important part of the syntax.
16 Many of Perl's syntactic elements are B<optional>. Rather than
17 requiring you to put parentheses around every function call and
18 declare every variable, you can often leave such explicit elements off
19 and Perl will figure out what you meant. This is known as B<Do What I
20 Mean>, abbreviated B<DWIM>. It allows programmers to be B<lazy> and to
21 code in a style with which they are comfortable.
23 Perl B<borrows syntax> and concepts from many languages: awk, sed, C,
24 Bourne Shell, Smalltalk, Lisp and even English. Other
25 languages have borrowed syntax from Perl, particularly its regular
26 expression extensions. So if you have programmed in another language
27 you will see familiar pieces in Perl. They often work the same, but
28 see L<perltrap> for information about how they differ.
31 X<declaration> X<undef> X<undefined> X<uninitialized>
33 The only things you need to declare in Perl are report formats and
34 subroutines (and sometimes not even subroutines). A variable holds
35 the undefined value (C<undef>) until it has been assigned a defined
36 value, which is anything other than C<undef>. When used as a number,
37 C<undef> is treated as C<0>; when used as a string, it is treated as
38 the empty string, C<"">; and when used as a reference that isn't being
39 assigned to, it is treated as an error. If you enable warnings,
40 you'll be notified of an uninitialized value whenever you treat
41 C<undef> as a string or a number. Well, usually. Boolean contexts,
47 are exempt from warnings (because they care about truth rather than
48 definedness). Operators such as C<++>, C<-->, C<+=>,
49 C<-=>, and C<.=>, that operate on undefined left values such as:
54 are also always exempt from such warnings.
56 A declaration can be put anywhere a statement can, but has no effect on
57 the execution of the primary sequence of statements--declarations all
58 take effect at compile time. Typically all the declarations are put at
59 the beginning or the end of the script. However, if you're using
60 lexically-scoped private variables created with C<my()>, you'll
62 your format or subroutine definition is within the same block scope
63 as the my if you expect to be able to access those private variables.
65 Declaring a subroutine allows a subroutine name to be used as if it were a
66 list operator from that point forward in the program. You can declare a
67 subroutine without defining it by saying C<sub name>, thus:
68 X<subroutine, declaration>
71 $me = myname $0 or die "can't get myname";
73 Note that myname() functions as a list operator, not as a unary operator;
74 so be careful to use C<or> instead of C<||> in this case. However, if
75 you were to declare the subroutine as C<sub myname ($)>, then
76 C<myname> would function as a unary operator, so either C<or> or
79 Subroutines declarations can also be loaded up with the C<require> statement
80 or both loaded and imported into your namespace with a C<use> statement.
81 See L<perlmod> for details on this.
83 A statement sequence may contain declarations of lexically-scoped
84 variables, but apart from declaring a variable name, the declaration acts
85 like an ordinary statement, and is elaborated within the sequence of
86 statements as if it were an ordinary statement. That means it actually
87 has both compile-time and run-time effects.
92 Text from a C<"#"> character until the end of the line is a comment,
93 and is ignored. Exceptions include C<"#"> inside a string or regular
96 =head2 Simple Statements
97 X<statement> X<semicolon> X<expression> X<;>
99 The only kind of simple statement is an expression evaluated for its
100 side effects. Every simple statement must be terminated with a
101 semicolon, unless it is the final statement in a block, in which case
102 the semicolon is optional. (A semicolon is still encouraged if the
103 block takes up more than one line, because you may eventually add
104 another line.) Note that there are some operators like C<eval {}> and
105 C<do {}> that look like compound statements, but aren't (they're just
106 TERMs in an expression), and thus need an explicit termination if used
107 as the last item in a statement.
109 =head2 Truth and Falsehood
110 X<truth> X<falsehood> X<true> X<false> X<!> X<not> X<negation> X<0>
112 The number 0, the strings C<'0'> and C<''>, the empty list C<()>, and
113 C<undef> are all false in a boolean context. All other values are true.
114 Negation of a true value by C<!> or C<not> returns a special false value.
115 When evaluated as a string it is treated as C<''>, but as a number, it
118 =head2 Statement Modifiers
119 X<statement modifier> X<modifier> X<if> X<unless> X<while>
120 X<until> X<when> X<foreach> X<for>
122 Any simple statement may optionally be followed by a I<SINGLE> modifier,
123 just before the terminating semicolon (or block ending). The possible
134 The C<EXPR> following the modifier is referred to as the "condition".
135 Its truth or falsehood determines how the modifier will behave.
137 C<if> executes the statement once I<if> and only if the condition is
138 true. C<unless> is the opposite, it executes the statement I<unless>
139 the condition is true (i.e., if the condition is false).
141 print "Basset hounds got long ears" if length $ear >= 10;
142 go_outside() and play() unless $is_raining;
144 C<when> executes the statement I<when> C<$_> smart matches C<EXPR>, and
145 then either C<break>s out if it's enclosed in a C<given> scope or skips
146 to the C<next> element when it lies directly inside a C<for> loop.
147 See also L</"Switch statements">.
150 $abc = 1 when /^abc/;
151 $just_a = 1 when /^a/;
156 admin($_) when [ qw/Alice Bob/ ];
157 regular($_) when [ qw/Chris David Ellen/ ];
160 The C<foreach> modifier is an iterator: it executes the statement once
161 for each item in the LIST (with C<$_> aliased to each item in turn).
163 print "Hello $_!\n" foreach qw(world Dolly nurse);
165 C<while> repeats the statement I<while> the condition is true.
166 C<until> does the opposite, it repeats the statement I<until> the
167 condition is true (or while the condition is false):
169 # Both of these count from 0 to 10.
170 print $i++ while $i <= 10;
171 print $j++ until $j > 10;
173 The C<while> and C<until> modifiers have the usual "C<while> loop"
174 semantics (conditional evaluated first), except when applied to a
175 C<do>-BLOCK (or to the deprecated C<do>-SUBROUTINE statement), in
176 which case the block executes once before the conditional is
177 evaluated. This is so that you can write loops like:
182 } until $line eq ".\n";
184 See L<perlfunc/do>. Note also that the loop control statements described
185 later will I<NOT> work in this construct, because modifiers don't take
186 loop labels. Sorry. You can always put another block inside of it
187 (for C<next>) or around it (for C<last>) to do that sort of thing.
188 For C<next>, just double the braces:
189 X<next> X<last> X<redo>
196 For C<last>, you have to be more elaborate:
206 B<NOTE:> The behaviour of a C<my> statement modified with a statement
207 modifier conditional or loop construct (e.g. C<my $x if ...>) is
208 B<undefined>. The value of the C<my> variable may be C<undef>, any
209 previously assigned value, or possibly anything else. Don't rely on
210 it. Future versions of perl might do something different from the
211 version of perl you try it out on. Here be dragons.
214 =head2 Compound Statements
215 X<statement, compound> X<block> X<bracket, curly> X<curly bracket> X<brace>
216 X<{> X<}> X<if> X<unless> X<while> X<until> X<foreach> X<for> X<continue>
218 In Perl, a sequence of statements that defines a scope is called a block.
219 Sometimes a block is delimited by the file containing it (in the case
220 of a required file, or the program as a whole), and sometimes a block
221 is delimited by the extent of a string (in the case of an eval).
223 But generally, a block is delimited by curly brackets, also known as braces.
224 We will call this syntactic construct a BLOCK.
226 The following compound statements may be used to control flow:
229 if (EXPR) BLOCK else BLOCK
230 if (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ... else BLOCK
232 unless (EXPR) BLOCK else BLOCK
233 unless (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ... else BLOCK
234 LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK
235 LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK continue BLOCK
236 LABEL until (EXPR) BLOCK
237 LABEL until (EXPR) BLOCK continue BLOCK
238 LABEL for (EXPR; EXPR; EXPR) BLOCK
239 LABEL foreach VAR (LIST) BLOCK
240 LABEL foreach VAR (LIST) BLOCK continue BLOCK
241 LABEL BLOCK continue BLOCK
243 Note that, unlike C and Pascal, these are defined in terms of BLOCKs,
244 not statements. This means that the curly brackets are I<required>--no
245 dangling statements allowed. If you want to write conditionals without
246 curly brackets there are several other ways to do it. The following
247 all do the same thing:
249 if (!open(FOO)) { die "Can't open $FOO: $!"; }
250 die "Can't open $FOO: $!" unless open(FOO);
251 open(FOO) or die "Can't open $FOO: $!"; # FOO or bust!
252 open(FOO) ? 'hi mom' : die "Can't open $FOO: $!";
253 # a bit exotic, that last one
255 The C<if> statement is straightforward. Because BLOCKs are always
256 bounded by curly brackets, there is never any ambiguity about which
257 C<if> an C<else> goes with. If you use C<unless> in place of C<if>,
258 the sense of the test is reversed. Like C<if>, C<unless> can be followed
259 by C<else>. C<unless> can even be followed by one or more C<elsif>
260 statements, though you may want to think twice before using that particular
261 language construct, as everyone reading your code will have to think at least
262 twice before they can understand what's going on.
264 The C<while> statement executes the block as long as the expression is
265 L<true|/"Truth and Falsehood">.
266 The C<until> statement executes the block as long as the expression is
268 The LABEL is optional, and if present, consists of an identifier followed
269 by a colon. The LABEL identifies the loop for the loop control
270 statements C<next>, C<last>, and C<redo>.
271 If the LABEL is omitted, the loop control statement
272 refers to the innermost enclosing loop. This may include dynamically
273 looking back your call-stack at run time to find the LABEL. Such
274 desperate behavior triggers a warning if you use the C<use warnings>
275 pragma or the B<-w> flag.
277 If there is a C<continue> BLOCK, it is always executed just before the
278 conditional is about to be evaluated again. Thus it can be used to
279 increment a loop variable, even when the loop has been continued via
280 the C<next> statement.
282 Extension modules can also hook into the Perl parser to define new
283 kinds of compound statement. These are introduced by a keyword which
284 the extension recognizes, and the syntax following the keyword is
285 defined entirely by the extension. If you are an implementor, see
286 L<perlapi/PL_keyword_plugin> for the mechanism. If you are using such
287 a module, see the module's documentation for details of the syntax that
291 X<loop control> X<loop, control> X<next> X<last> X<redo> X<continue>
293 The C<next> command starts the next iteration of the loop:
295 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
296 next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments
300 The C<last> command immediately exits the loop in question. The
301 C<continue> block, if any, is not executed:
303 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
304 last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header
308 The C<redo> command restarts the loop block without evaluating the
309 conditional again. The C<continue> block, if any, is I<not> executed.
310 This command is normally used by programs that want to lie to themselves
311 about what was just input.
313 For example, when processing a file like F</etc/termcap>.
314 If your input lines might end in backslashes to indicate continuation, you
315 want to skip ahead and get the next record.
326 which is Perl short-hand for the more explicitly written version:
328 LINE: while (defined($line = <ARGV>)) {
330 if ($line =~ s/\\$//) {
332 redo LINE unless eof(); # not eof(ARGV)!
337 Note that if there were a C<continue> block on the above code, it would
338 get executed only on lines discarded by the regex (since redo skips the
339 continue block). A continue block is often used to reset line counters
340 or C<m?pat?> one-time matches:
342 # inspired by :1,$g/fred/s//WILMA/
344 m?(fred)? && s//WILMA $1 WILMA/;
345 m?(barney)? && s//BETTY $1 BETTY/;
346 m?(homer)? && s//MARGE $1 MARGE/;
348 print "$ARGV $.: $_";
349 close ARGV if eof; # reset $.
350 reset if eof; # reset ?pat?
353 If the word C<while> is replaced by the word C<until>, the sense of the
354 test is reversed, but the conditional is still tested before the first
357 The loop control statements don't work in an C<if> or C<unless>, since
358 they aren't loops. You can double the braces to make them such, though.
362 next if /barney/; # same effect as "last", but doesn't document as well
366 This is caused by the fact that a block by itself acts as a loop that
367 executes once, see L<"Basic BLOCKs">.
369 The form C<while/if BLOCK BLOCK>, available in Perl 4, is no longer
370 available. Replace any occurrence of C<if BLOCK> by C<if (do BLOCK)>.
375 Perl's C-style C<for> loop works like the corresponding C<while> loop;
376 that means that this:
378 for ($i = 1; $i < 10; $i++) {
391 There is one minor difference: if variables are declared with C<my>
392 in the initialization section of the C<for>, the lexical scope of
393 those variables is exactly the C<for> loop (the body of the loop
394 and the control sections).
397 Besides the normal array index looping, C<for> can lend itself
398 to many other interesting applications. Here's one that avoids the
399 problem you get into if you explicitly test for end-of-file on
400 an interactive file descriptor causing your program to appear to
402 X<eof> X<end-of-file> X<end of file>
404 $on_a_tty = -t STDIN && -t STDOUT;
405 sub prompt { print "yes? " if $on_a_tty }
406 for ( prompt(); <STDIN>; prompt() ) {
410 Using C<readline> (or the operator form, C<< <EXPR> >>) as the
411 conditional of a C<for> loop is shorthand for the following. This
412 behaviour is the same as a C<while> loop conditional.
413 X<readline> X<< <> >>
415 for ( prompt(); defined( $_ = <STDIN> ); prompt() ) {
422 The C<foreach> loop iterates over a normal list value and sets the
423 variable VAR to be each element of the list in turn. If the variable
424 is preceded with the keyword C<my>, then it is lexically scoped, and
425 is therefore visible only within the loop. Otherwise, the variable is
426 implicitly local to the loop and regains its former value upon exiting
427 the loop. If the variable was previously declared with C<my>, it uses
428 that variable instead of the global one, but it's still localized to
429 the loop. This implicit localization occurs I<only> in a C<foreach>
433 The C<foreach> keyword is actually a synonym for the C<for> keyword, so
434 you can use C<foreach> for readability or C<for> for brevity. (Or because
435 the Bourne shell is more familiar to you than I<csh>, so writing C<for>
436 comes more naturally.) If VAR is omitted, C<$_> is set to each value.
439 If any element of LIST is an lvalue, you can modify it by modifying
440 VAR inside the loop. Conversely, if any element of LIST is NOT an
441 lvalue, any attempt to modify that element will fail. In other words,
442 the C<foreach> loop index variable is an implicit alias for each item
443 in the list that you're looping over.
446 If any part of LIST is an array, C<foreach> will get very confused if
447 you add or remove elements within the loop body, for example with
448 C<splice>. So don't do that.
451 C<foreach> probably won't do what you expect if VAR is a tied or other
452 special variable. Don't do that either.
456 for (@ary) { s/foo/bar/ }
458 for my $elem (@elements) {
462 for $count (10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,'BOOM') {
463 print $count, "\n"; sleep(1);
466 for (1..15) { print "Merry Christmas\n"; }
468 foreach $item (split(/:[\\\n:]*/, $ENV{TERMCAP})) {
469 print "Item: $item\n";
472 Here's how a C programmer might code up a particular algorithm in Perl:
474 for (my $i = 0; $i < @ary1; $i++) {
475 for (my $j = 0; $j < @ary2; $j++) {
476 if ($ary1[$i] > $ary2[$j]) {
477 last; # can't go to outer :-(
479 $ary1[$i] += $ary2[$j];
481 # this is where that last takes me
484 Whereas here's how a Perl programmer more comfortable with the idiom might
487 OUTER: for my $wid (@ary1) {
488 INNER: for my $jet (@ary2) {
489 next OUTER if $wid > $jet;
494 See how much easier this is? It's cleaner, safer, and faster. It's
495 cleaner because it's less noisy. It's safer because if code gets added
496 between the inner and outer loops later on, the new code won't be
497 accidentally executed. The C<next> explicitly iterates the other loop
498 rather than merely terminating the inner one. And it's faster because
499 Perl executes a C<foreach> statement more rapidly than it would the
500 equivalent C<for> loop.
505 A BLOCK by itself (labeled or not) is semantically equivalent to a
506 loop that executes once. Thus you can use any of the loop control
507 statements in it to leave or restart the block. (Note that this is
508 I<NOT> true in C<eval{}>, C<sub{}>, or contrary to popular belief
509 C<do{}> blocks, which do I<NOT> count as loops.) The C<continue>
512 The BLOCK construct can be used to emulate case structures.
515 if (/^abc/) { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; }
516 if (/^def/) { $def = 1; last SWITCH; }
517 if (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; }
521 Such constructs are quite frequently used, because older versions
522 of Perl had no official C<switch> statement.
524 =head2 Switch statements
526 X<switch> X<case> X<given> X<when> X<default>
528 Starting from Perl 5.10, you can say
530 use feature "switch";
532 which enables a switch feature that is closely based on the
533 Perl 6 proposal. Starting from Perl 5.16, one can prefix the switch
534 keywords with C<CORE::> to access the feature without a C<use feature>
537 The keywords C<given> and C<when> are analogous
538 to C<switch> and C<case> in other languages, so the code
539 above could be written as
542 when (/^abc/) { $abc = 1; }
543 when (/^def/) { $def = 1; }
544 when (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1; }
545 default { $nothing = 1; }
548 This construct is very flexible and powerful. For example:
553 say '$foo is undefined';
556 say '$foo is the string "foo"';
559 say '$foo is an odd digit';
560 continue; # Fall through
563 say '$foo is numerically less than 100';
565 when (\&complicated_check) {
566 say 'a complicated check for $foo is true';
569 die q(I don't know what to do with $foo);
573 C<given(EXPR)> will assign the value of EXPR to C<$_>
574 within the lexical scope of the block, so it's similar to
576 do { my $_ = EXPR; ... }
578 except that the block is automatically broken out of by a
579 successful C<when> or an explicit C<break>.
581 Most of the power comes from implicit smart matching:
585 is exactly equivalent to
589 Most of the time, C<when(EXPR)> is treated as an implicit smart match of
590 C<$_>, i.e. C<$_ ~~ EXPR>. (See L</"Smart matching in detail"> for more
591 information on smart matching.) But when EXPR is one of the below
592 exceptional cases, it is used directly as a boolean:
598 a subroutine or method call
602 a regular expression match, i.e. C</REGEX/> or C<$foo =~ /REGEX/>,
603 or a negated regular expression match (C<!/REGEX/> or C<$foo !~ /REGEX/>).
607 a comparison such as C<$_ E<lt> 10> or C<$x eq "abc">
608 (or of course C<$_ ~~ $c>)
612 C<defined(...)>, C<exists(...)>, or C<eof(...)>
616 a negated expression C<!(...)> or C<not (...)>, or a logical
617 exclusive-or C<(...) xor (...)>.
621 a filetest operator, with the exception of C<-s>, C<-M>, C<-A>, and C<-C>,
622 that return numerical values, not boolean ones.
626 the C<..> and C<...> flip-flop operators.
630 In those cases the value of EXPR is used directly as a boolean.
632 Furthermore, Perl inspects the operands of the binary boolean operators to
633 decide whether to use smart matching for each one by applying the above test to
640 If EXPR is C<... && ...> or C<... and ...>, the test
641 is applied recursively to both operands. If I<both>
642 operands pass the test, then the expression is treated
643 as boolean; otherwise, smart matching is used.
647 If EXPR is C<... || ...>, C<... // ...> or C<... or ...>, the test
648 is applied recursively to the first operand (which may be a
649 higher-precedence AND operator, for example). If the first operand
650 is to use smart matching, then both operands will do so; if it is
651 not, then the second argument will not be either.
655 These rules look complicated, but usually they will do what
656 you want. For example:
658 when (/^\d+$/ && $_ < 75) { ... }
660 will be treated as a boolean match because the rules say both a regex match and
661 an explicit test on $_ will be treated as boolean.
665 when ([qw(foo bar)] && /baz/) { ... }
667 will use smart matching because only I<one> of the operands is a boolean; the
668 other uses smart matching, and that wins.
672 when ([qw(foo bar)] || /^baz/) { ... }
674 will use smart matching (only the first operand is considered), whereas
676 when (/^baz/ || [qw(foo bar)]) { ... }
678 will test only the regex, which causes both operands to be treated as boolean.
679 Watch out for this one, then, because an arrayref is always a true value, which
680 makes it effectively redundant.
682 Tautologous boolean operators are still going to be optimized away. Don't be
685 when ('foo' or 'bar') { ... }
687 This will optimize down to C<'foo'>, so C<'bar'> will never be considered (even
688 though the rules say to use a smart match on C<'foo'>). For an alternation like
689 this, an array ref will work, because this will instigate smart matching:
691 when ([qw(foo bar)] { ... }
693 This is somewhat equivalent to the C-style switch statement's fallthrough
694 functionality (not to be confused with I<Perl's> fallthrough functionality - see
695 below), wherein the same block is used for several C<case> statements.
697 Another useful shortcut is that, if you use a literal array
698 or hash as the argument to C<given>, it is turned into a
699 reference. So C<given(@foo)> is the same as C<given(\@foo)>,
702 C<default> behaves exactly like C<when(1 == 1)>, which is
703 to say that it always matches.
707 You can use the C<break> keyword to break out of the enclosing
708 C<given> block. Every C<when> block is implicitly ended with
713 You can use the C<continue> keyword to fall through from one
717 when (/x/) { say '$foo contains an x'; continue }
718 when (/y/) { say '$foo contains a y' }
719 default { say '$foo does not contain a y' }
724 When a C<given> statement is also a valid expression (e.g.
725 when it's the last statement of a block), it evaluates to :
731 an empty list as soon as an explicit C<break> is encountered.
735 the value of the last evaluated expression of the successful
736 C<when>/C<default> clause, if there's one.
740 the value of the last evaluated expression of the C<given> block if no
745 In both last cases, the last expression is evaluated in the context that
746 was applied to the C<given> block.
748 Note that, unlike C<if> and C<unless>, failed C<when> statements always
749 evaluate to an empty list.
751 my $price = do { given ($item) {
752 when ([ 'pear', 'apple' ]) { 1 }
753 break when 'vote'; # My vote cannot be bought
754 1e10 when /Mona Lisa/;
758 Currently, C<given> blocks can't always be used as proper expressions. This
759 may be addressed in a future version of perl.
761 =head3 Switching in a loop
763 Instead of using C<given()>, you can use a C<foreach()> loop.
764 For example, here's one way to count how many times a particular
765 string occurs in an array:
769 when ("foo") { ++$count }
771 print "\@array contains $count copies of 'foo'\n";
773 At the end of all C<when> blocks, there is an implicit C<next>.
774 You can override that with an explicit C<last> if you're only
775 interested in the first match.
777 This doesn't work if you explicitly specify a loop variable,
778 as in C<for $item (@array)>. You have to use the default
779 variable C<$_>. (You can use C<for my $_ (@array)>.)
781 =head3 Smart matching in detail
783 The behaviour of a smart match depends on what type of thing its arguments
784 are. The behaviour is determined by the following table: the first row
785 that applies determines the match behaviour (which is thus mostly
786 determined by the type of the right operand). Note that the smart match
787 implicitly dereferences any non-blessed hash or array ref, so the "Hash"
788 and "Array" entries apply in those cases. (For blessed references, the
789 "Object" entries apply.)
791 Note that the "Matching Code" column is not always an exact rendition. For
792 example, the smart match operator short-circuits whenever possible, but
795 $a $b Type of Match Implied Matching Code
796 ====== ===== ===================== =============
797 Any undef undefined !defined $a
799 Any Object invokes ~~ overloading on $object, or dies
801 Hash CodeRef sub truth for each key[1] !grep { !$b->($_) } keys %$a
802 Array CodeRef sub truth for each elt[1] !grep { !$b->($_) } @$a
803 Any CodeRef scalar sub truth $b->($a)
805 Hash Hash hash keys identical (every key is found in both hashes)
806 Array Hash hash keys intersection grep { exists $b->{$_} } @$a
807 Regex Hash hash key grep grep /$a/, keys %$b
808 undef Hash always false (undef can't be a key)
809 Any Hash hash entry existence exists $b->{$a}
811 Hash Array hash keys intersection grep { exists $a->{$_} } @$b
812 Array Array arrays are comparable[2]
813 Regex Array array grep grep /$a/, @$b
814 undef Array array contains undef grep !defined, @$b
815 Any Array match against an array element[3]
818 Hash Regex hash key grep grep /$b/, keys %$a
819 Array Regex array grep grep /$b/, @$a
820 Any Regex pattern match $a =~ /$b/
822 Object Any invokes ~~ overloading on $object, or falls back:
823 undef Any undefined !defined($b)
824 Any Num numeric equality $a == $b
825 Num numish[4] numeric equality $a == $b
826 Any Any string equality $a eq $b
828 1 - empty hashes or arrays will match.
829 2 - that is, each element smart-matches the element of same index in the
831 3 - If a circular reference is found, we fall back to referential equality.
832 4 - either a real number, or a string that looks like a number
834 =head3 Custom matching via overloading
836 You can change the way that an object is matched by overloading
837 the C<~~> operator. This may alter the usual smart match semantics.
839 It should be noted that C<~~> will refuse to work on objects that
840 don't overload it (in order to avoid relying on the object's
841 underlying structure).
843 Note also that smart match's matching rules take precedence over
844 overloading, so if C<$obj> has smart match overloading, then
848 will not automatically invoke the overload method with X as an argument;
849 instead the table above is consulted as normal, and based in the type of X,
850 overloading may or may not be invoked.
854 =head3 Differences from Perl 6
856 The Perl 5 smart match and C<given>/C<when> constructs are not
857 absolutely identical to their Perl 6 analogues. The most visible
858 difference is that, in Perl 5, parentheses are required around
859 the argument to C<given()> and C<when()> (except when this last
860 one is used as a statement modifier). Parentheses in Perl 6
861 are always optional in a control construct such as C<if()>,
862 C<while()>, or C<when()>; they can't be made optional in Perl
863 5 without a great deal of potential confusion, because Perl 5
864 would parse the expression
870 as though the argument to C<given> were an element of the hash
871 C<%foo>, interpreting the braces as hash-element syntax.
873 The table of smart matches is not identical to that proposed by the
874 Perl 6 specification, mainly due to the differences between Perl 6's
875 and Perl 5's data models.
877 In Perl 6, C<when()> will always do an implicit smart match
878 with its argument, whilst it is convenient in Perl 5 to
879 suppress this implicit smart match in certain situations,
880 as documented above. (The difference is largely because Perl 5
881 does not, even internally, have a boolean type.)
886 Although not for the faint of heart, Perl does support a C<goto>
887 statement. There are three forms: C<goto>-LABEL, C<goto>-EXPR, and
888 C<goto>-&NAME. A loop's LABEL is not actually a valid target for
889 a C<goto>; it's just the name of the loop.
891 The C<goto>-LABEL form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes
892 execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that
893 requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a C<foreach> loop. It
894 also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away. It
895 can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope,
896 including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other
897 construct such as C<last> or C<die>. The author of Perl has never felt the
898 need to use this form of C<goto> (in Perl, that is--C is another matter).
900 The C<goto>-EXPR form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved
901 dynamically. This allows for computed C<goto>s per FORTRAN, but isn't
902 necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability:
904 goto(("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i]);
906 The C<goto>-&NAME form is highly magical, and substitutes a call to the
907 named subroutine for the currently running subroutine. This is used by
908 C<AUTOLOAD()> subroutines that wish to load another subroutine and then
909 pretend that the other subroutine had been called in the first place
910 (except that any modifications to C<@_> in the current subroutine are
911 propagated to the other subroutine.) After the C<goto>, not even C<caller()>
912 will be able to tell that this routine was called first.
914 In almost all cases like this, it's usually a far, far better idea to use the
915 structured control flow mechanisms of C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> instead of
916 resorting to a C<goto>. For certain applications, the catch and throw pair of
917 C<eval{}> and die() for exception processing can also be a prudent approach.
919 =head2 PODs: Embedded Documentation
920 X<POD> X<documentation>
922 Perl has a mechanism for intermixing documentation with source code.
923 While it's expecting the beginning of a new statement, if the compiler
924 encounters a line that begins with an equal sign and a word, like this
926 =head1 Here There Be Pods!
928 Then that text and all remaining text up through and including a line
929 beginning with C<=cut> will be ignored. The format of the intervening
930 text is described in L<perlpod>.
932 This allows you to intermix your source code
933 and your documentation text freely, as in
937 The snazzle() function will behave in the most spectacular
938 form that you can possibly imagine, not even excepting
939 cybernetic pyrotechnics.
941 =cut back to the compiler, nuff of this pod stuff!
948 Note that pod translators should look at only paragraphs beginning
949 with a pod directive (it makes parsing easier), whereas the compiler
950 actually knows to look for pod escapes even in the middle of a
951 paragraph. This means that the following secret stuff will be
952 ignored by both the compiler and the translators.
956 warn "Neither POD nor CODE!?"
960 You probably shouldn't rely upon the C<warn()> being podded out forever.
961 Not all pod translators are well-behaved in this regard, and perhaps
962 the compiler will become pickier.
964 One may also use pod directives to quickly comment out a section
967 =head2 Plain Old Comments (Not!)
968 X<comment> X<line> X<#> X<preprocessor> X<eval>
970 Perl can process line directives, much like the C preprocessor. Using
971 this, one can control Perl's idea of filenames and line numbers in
972 error or warning messages (especially for strings that are processed
973 with C<eval()>). The syntax for this mechanism is almost the same as for
974 most C preprocessors: it matches the regular expression
976 # example: '# line 42 "new_filename.plx"'
979 (?:\s("?)([^"]+)\g2)? \s*
982 with C<$1> being the line number for the next line, and C<$3> being
983 the optional filename (specified with or without quotes). Note that
984 no whitespace may precede the C<< # >>, unlike modern C preprocessors.
986 There is a fairly obvious gotcha included with the line directive:
987 Debuggers and profilers will only show the last source line to appear
988 at a particular line number in a given file. Care should be taken not
989 to cause line number collisions in code you'd like to debug later.
991 Here are some examples that you should be able to type into your command
996 # the `#' on the previous line must be the first char on line
999 foo at bzzzt line 201.
1003 eval qq[\n#line 2001 ""\ndie 'foo']; print $@;
1008 eval qq[\n#line 200 "foo bar"\ndie 'foo']; print $@;
1010 foo at foo bar line 200.
1014 eval "\n#line " . __LINE__ . ' "' . __FILE__ ."\"\ndie 'foo'";
1017 foo at goop line 345.