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a0d0e21e LW |
1 | =head1 NAME |
2 | ||
3 | perlfunc - Perl builtin functions | |
4 | ||
5 | =head1 DESCRIPTION | |
6 | ||
7 | The functions in this section can serve as terms in an expression. | |
8 | They fall into two major categories: list operators and named unary | |
9 | operators. These differ in their precedence relationship with a | |
10 | following comma. (See the precedence table in L<perlop>.) List | |
11 | operators take more than one argument, while unary operators can never | |
12 | take more than one argument. Thus, a comma terminates the argument of | |
13 | a unary operator, but merely separates the arguments of a list | |
14 | operator. A unary operator generally provides a scalar context to its | |
2b5ab1e7 | 15 | argument, while a list operator may provide either scalar or list |
a0d0e21e | 16 | contexts for its arguments. If it does both, the scalar arguments will |
5f05dabc | 17 | be first, and the list argument will follow. (Note that there can ever |
0f31cffe | 18 | be only one such list argument.) For instance, splice() has three scalar |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
19 | arguments followed by a list, whereas gethostbyname() has four scalar |
20 | arguments. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
21 | |
22 | In the syntax descriptions that follow, list operators that expect a | |
23 | list (and provide list context for the elements of the list) are shown | |
24 | with LIST as an argument. Such a list may consist of any combination | |
25 | of scalar arguments or list values; the list values will be included | |
26 | in the list as if each individual element were interpolated at that | |
27 | point in the list, forming a longer single-dimensional list value. | |
28 | Elements of the LIST should be separated by commas. | |
29 | ||
30 | Any function in the list below may be used either with or without | |
31 | parentheses around its arguments. (The syntax descriptions omit the | |
5f05dabc | 32 | parentheses.) If you use the parentheses, the simple (but occasionally |
19799a22 | 33 | surprising) rule is this: It I<looks> like a function, therefore it I<is> a |
a0d0e21e LW |
34 | function, and precedence doesn't matter. Otherwise it's a list |
35 | operator or unary operator, and precedence does matter. And whitespace | |
36 | between the function and left parenthesis doesn't count--so you need to | |
37 | be careful sometimes: | |
38 | ||
68dc0745 | 39 | print 1+2+4; # Prints 7. |
40 | print(1+2) + 4; # Prints 3. | |
41 | print (1+2)+4; # Also prints 3! | |
42 | print +(1+2)+4; # Prints 7. | |
43 | print ((1+2)+4); # Prints 7. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
44 | |
45 | If you run Perl with the B<-w> switch it can warn you about this. For | |
46 | example, the third line above produces: | |
47 | ||
48 | print (...) interpreted as function at - line 1. | |
49 | Useless use of integer addition in void context at - line 1. | |
50 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
51 | A few functions take no arguments at all, and therefore work as neither |
52 | unary nor list operators. These include such functions as C<time> | |
53 | and C<endpwent>. For example, C<time+86_400> always means | |
54 | C<time() + 86_400>. | |
55 | ||
a0d0e21e | 56 | For functions that can be used in either a scalar or list context, |
54310121 | 57 | nonabortive failure is generally indicated in a scalar context by |
a0d0e21e LW |
58 | returning the undefined value, and in a list context by returning the |
59 | null list. | |
60 | ||
5a964f20 TC |
61 | Remember the following important rule: There is B<no rule> that relates |
62 | the behavior of an expression in list context to its behavior in scalar | |
63 | context, or vice versa. It might do two totally different things. | |
a0d0e21e | 64 | Each operator and function decides which sort of value it would be most |
2b5ab1e7 | 65 | appropriate to return in scalar context. Some operators return the |
5a964f20 | 66 | length of the list that would have been returned in list context. Some |
a0d0e21e LW |
67 | operators return the first value in the list. Some operators return the |
68 | last value in the list. Some operators return a count of successful | |
69 | operations. In general, they do what you want, unless you want | |
70 | consistency. | |
71 | ||
d1be9408 | 72 | A named array in scalar context is quite different from what would at |
5a964f20 TC |
73 | first glance appear to be a list in scalar context. You can't get a list |
74 | like C<(1,2,3)> into being in scalar context, because the compiler knows | |
75 | the context at compile time. It would generate the scalar comma operator | |
76 | there, not the list construction version of the comma. That means it | |
77 | was never a list to start with. | |
78 | ||
79 | In general, functions in Perl that serve as wrappers for system calls | |
f86cebdf | 80 | of the same name (like chown(2), fork(2), closedir(2), etc.) all return |
5a964f20 TC |
81 | true when they succeed and C<undef> otherwise, as is usually mentioned |
82 | in the descriptions below. This is different from the C interfaces, | |
19799a22 GS |
83 | which return C<-1> on failure. Exceptions to this rule are C<wait>, |
84 | C<waitpid>, and C<syscall>. System calls also set the special C<$!> | |
5a964f20 TC |
85 | variable on failure. Other functions do not, except accidentally. |
86 | ||
cb1a09d0 AD |
87 | =head2 Perl Functions by Category |
88 | ||
89 | Here are Perl's functions (including things that look like | |
5a964f20 | 90 | functions, like some keywords and named operators) |
cb1a09d0 AD |
91 | arranged by category. Some functions appear in more |
92 | than one place. | |
93 | ||
13a2d996 | 94 | =over 4 |
cb1a09d0 AD |
95 | |
96 | =item Functions for SCALARs or strings | |
97 | ||
22fae026 | 98 | C<chomp>, C<chop>, C<chr>, C<crypt>, C<hex>, C<index>, C<lc>, C<lcfirst>, |
945c54fd JH |
99 | C<length>, C<oct>, C<ord>, C<pack>, C<q/STRING/>, C<qq/STRING/>, C<reverse>, |
100 | C<rindex>, C<sprintf>, C<substr>, C<tr///>, C<uc>, C<ucfirst>, C<y///> | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
101 | |
102 | =item Regular expressions and pattern matching | |
103 | ||
ab4f32c2 | 104 | C<m//>, C<pos>, C<quotemeta>, C<s///>, C<split>, C<study>, C<qr//> |
cb1a09d0 AD |
105 | |
106 | =item Numeric functions | |
107 | ||
22fae026 TM |
108 | C<abs>, C<atan2>, C<cos>, C<exp>, C<hex>, C<int>, C<log>, C<oct>, C<rand>, |
109 | C<sin>, C<sqrt>, C<srand> | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
110 | |
111 | =item Functions for real @ARRAYs | |
112 | ||
22fae026 | 113 | C<pop>, C<push>, C<shift>, C<splice>, C<unshift> |
cb1a09d0 AD |
114 | |
115 | =item Functions for list data | |
116 | ||
ab4f32c2 | 117 | C<grep>, C<join>, C<map>, C<qw/STRING/>, C<reverse>, C<sort>, C<unpack> |
cb1a09d0 AD |
118 | |
119 | =item Functions for real %HASHes | |
120 | ||
22fae026 | 121 | C<delete>, C<each>, C<exists>, C<keys>, C<values> |
cb1a09d0 AD |
122 | |
123 | =item Input and output functions | |
124 | ||
22fae026 TM |
125 | C<binmode>, C<close>, C<closedir>, C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>, C<die>, C<eof>, |
126 | C<fileno>, C<flock>, C<format>, C<getc>, C<print>, C<printf>, C<read>, | |
127 | C<readdir>, C<rewinddir>, C<seek>, C<seekdir>, C<select>, C<syscall>, | |
128 | C<sysread>, C<sysseek>, C<syswrite>, C<tell>, C<telldir>, C<truncate>, | |
129 | C<warn>, C<write> | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
130 | |
131 | =item Functions for fixed length data or records | |
132 | ||
22fae026 | 133 | C<pack>, C<read>, C<syscall>, C<sysread>, C<syswrite>, C<unpack>, C<vec> |
cb1a09d0 AD |
134 | |
135 | =item Functions for filehandles, files, or directories | |
136 | ||
22fae026 | 137 | C<-I<X>>, C<chdir>, C<chmod>, C<chown>, C<chroot>, C<fcntl>, C<glob>, |
5ff3f7a4 | 138 | C<ioctl>, C<link>, C<lstat>, C<mkdir>, C<open>, C<opendir>, |
1e278fd9 JH |
139 | C<readlink>, C<rename>, C<rmdir>, C<stat>, C<symlink>, C<sysopen>, |
140 | C<umask>, C<unlink>, C<utime> | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
141 | |
142 | =item Keywords related to the control flow of your perl program | |
143 | ||
98293880 JH |
144 | C<caller>, C<continue>, C<die>, C<do>, C<dump>, C<eval>, C<exit>, |
145 | C<goto>, C<last>, C<next>, C<redo>, C<return>, C<sub>, C<wantarray> | |
cb1a09d0 | 146 | |
54310121 | 147 | =item Keywords related to scoping |
cb1a09d0 | 148 | |
4375e838 | 149 | C<caller>, C<import>, C<local>, C<my>, C<our>, C<package>, C<use> |
cb1a09d0 AD |
150 | |
151 | =item Miscellaneous functions | |
152 | ||
4375e838 | 153 | C<defined>, C<dump>, C<eval>, C<formline>, C<local>, C<my>, C<our>, C<reset>, |
22fae026 | 154 | C<scalar>, C<undef>, C<wantarray> |
cb1a09d0 AD |
155 | |
156 | =item Functions for processes and process groups | |
157 | ||
22fae026 | 158 | C<alarm>, C<exec>, C<fork>, C<getpgrp>, C<getppid>, C<getpriority>, C<kill>, |
ab4f32c2 | 159 | C<pipe>, C<qx/STRING/>, C<setpgrp>, C<setpriority>, C<sleep>, C<system>, |
22fae026 | 160 | C<times>, C<wait>, C<waitpid> |
cb1a09d0 AD |
161 | |
162 | =item Keywords related to perl modules | |
163 | ||
22fae026 | 164 | C<do>, C<import>, C<no>, C<package>, C<require>, C<use> |
cb1a09d0 AD |
165 | |
166 | =item Keywords related to classes and object-orientedness | |
167 | ||
22fae026 TM |
168 | C<bless>, C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>, C<package>, C<ref>, C<tie>, C<tied>, |
169 | C<untie>, C<use> | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
170 | |
171 | =item Low-level socket functions | |
172 | ||
22fae026 TM |
173 | C<accept>, C<bind>, C<connect>, C<getpeername>, C<getsockname>, |
174 | C<getsockopt>, C<listen>, C<recv>, C<send>, C<setsockopt>, C<shutdown>, | |
737dd4b4 | 175 | C<socket>, C<socketpair> |
cb1a09d0 AD |
176 | |
177 | =item System V interprocess communication functions | |
178 | ||
22fae026 TM |
179 | C<msgctl>, C<msgget>, C<msgrcv>, C<msgsnd>, C<semctl>, C<semget>, C<semop>, |
180 | C<shmctl>, C<shmget>, C<shmread>, C<shmwrite> | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
181 | |
182 | =item Fetching user and group info | |
183 | ||
22fae026 TM |
184 | C<endgrent>, C<endhostent>, C<endnetent>, C<endpwent>, C<getgrent>, |
185 | C<getgrgid>, C<getgrnam>, C<getlogin>, C<getpwent>, C<getpwnam>, | |
186 | C<getpwuid>, C<setgrent>, C<setpwent> | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
187 | |
188 | =item Fetching network info | |
189 | ||
22fae026 TM |
190 | C<endprotoent>, C<endservent>, C<gethostbyaddr>, C<gethostbyname>, |
191 | C<gethostent>, C<getnetbyaddr>, C<getnetbyname>, C<getnetent>, | |
192 | C<getprotobyname>, C<getprotobynumber>, C<getprotoent>, | |
193 | C<getservbyname>, C<getservbyport>, C<getservent>, C<sethostent>, | |
194 | C<setnetent>, C<setprotoent>, C<setservent> | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
195 | |
196 | =item Time-related functions | |
197 | ||
22fae026 | 198 | C<gmtime>, C<localtime>, C<time>, C<times> |
cb1a09d0 | 199 | |
37798a01 | 200 | =item Functions new in perl5 |
201 | ||
22fae026 | 202 | C<abs>, C<bless>, C<chomp>, C<chr>, C<exists>, C<formline>, C<glob>, |
b76cc8ba | 203 | C<import>, C<lc>, C<lcfirst>, C<map>, C<my>, C<no>, C<our>, C<prototype>, |
4375e838 | 204 | C<qx>, C<qw>, C<readline>, C<readpipe>, C<ref>, C<sub*>, C<sysopen>, C<tie>, |
22fae026 | 205 | C<tied>, C<uc>, C<ucfirst>, C<untie>, C<use> |
37798a01 | 206 | |
207 | * - C<sub> was a keyword in perl4, but in perl5 it is an | |
5a964f20 | 208 | operator, which can be used in expressions. |
37798a01 | 209 | |
210 | =item Functions obsoleted in perl5 | |
211 | ||
22fae026 | 212 | C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen> |
37798a01 | 213 | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
214 | =back |
215 | ||
60f9f73c JH |
216 | =head2 Portability |
217 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
218 | Perl was born in Unix and can therefore access all common Unix |
219 | system calls. In non-Unix environments, the functionality of some | |
220 | Unix system calls may not be available, or details of the available | |
221 | functionality may differ slightly. The Perl functions affected | |
60f9f73c JH |
222 | by this are: |
223 | ||
224 | C<-X>, C<binmode>, C<chmod>, C<chown>, C<chroot>, C<crypt>, | |
225 | C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>, C<dump>, C<endgrent>, C<endhostent>, | |
226 | C<endnetent>, C<endprotoent>, C<endpwent>, C<endservent>, C<exec>, | |
ef5a6dd7 JH |
227 | C<fcntl>, C<flock>, C<fork>, C<getgrent>, C<getgrgid>, C<gethostbyname>, |
228 | C<gethostent>, C<getlogin>, C<getnetbyaddr>, C<getnetbyname>, C<getnetent>, | |
60f9f73c JH |
229 | C<getppid>, C<getprgp>, C<getpriority>, C<getprotobynumber>, |
230 | C<getprotoent>, C<getpwent>, C<getpwnam>, C<getpwuid>, | |
231 | C<getservbyport>, C<getservent>, C<getsockopt>, C<glob>, C<ioctl>, | |
232 | C<kill>, C<link>, C<lstat>, C<msgctl>, C<msgget>, C<msgrcv>, | |
2b5ab1e7 | 233 | C<msgsnd>, C<open>, C<pipe>, C<readlink>, C<rename>, C<select>, C<semctl>, |
60f9f73c JH |
234 | C<semget>, C<semop>, C<setgrent>, C<sethostent>, C<setnetent>, |
235 | C<setpgrp>, C<setpriority>, C<setprotoent>, C<setpwent>, | |
236 | C<setservent>, C<setsockopt>, C<shmctl>, C<shmget>, C<shmread>, | |
737dd4b4 | 237 | C<shmwrite>, C<socket>, C<socketpair>, |
80cbd5ad JH |
238 | C<stat>, C<symlink>, C<syscall>, C<sysopen>, C<system>, |
239 | C<times>, C<truncate>, C<umask>, C<unlink>, | |
2b5ab1e7 | 240 | C<utime>, C<wait>, C<waitpid> |
60f9f73c JH |
241 | |
242 | For more information about the portability of these functions, see | |
243 | L<perlport> and other available platform-specific documentation. | |
244 | ||
cb1a09d0 AD |
245 | =head2 Alphabetical Listing of Perl Functions |
246 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
247 | =over 8 |
248 | ||
5b3c99c0 | 249 | =item -X FILEHANDLE |
a0d0e21e | 250 | |
5b3c99c0 | 251 | =item -X EXPR |
a0d0e21e | 252 | |
5b3c99c0 | 253 | =item -X |
a0d0e21e LW |
254 | |
255 | A file test, where X is one of the letters listed below. This unary | |
256 | operator takes one argument, either a filename or a filehandle, and | |
257 | tests the associated file to see if something is true about it. If the | |
7660c0ab | 258 | argument is omitted, tests C<$_>, except for C<-t>, which tests STDIN. |
19799a22 | 259 | Unless otherwise documented, it returns C<1> for true and C<''> for false, or |
a0d0e21e LW |
260 | the undefined value if the file doesn't exist. Despite the funny |
261 | names, precedence is the same as any other named unary operator, and | |
262 | the argument may be parenthesized like any other unary operator. The | |
263 | operator may be any of: | |
7e778d91 IZ |
264 | X<-r>X<-w>X<-x>X<-o>X<-R>X<-W>X<-X>X<-O>X<-e>X<-z>X<-s>X<-f>X<-d>X<-l>X<-p> |
265 | X<-S>X<-b>X<-c>X<-t>X<-u>X<-g>X<-k>X<-T>X<-B>X<-M>X<-A>X<-C> | |
a0d0e21e LW |
266 | |
267 | -r File is readable by effective uid/gid. | |
268 | -w File is writable by effective uid/gid. | |
269 | -x File is executable by effective uid/gid. | |
270 | -o File is owned by effective uid. | |
271 | ||
272 | -R File is readable by real uid/gid. | |
273 | -W File is writable by real uid/gid. | |
274 | -X File is executable by real uid/gid. | |
275 | -O File is owned by real uid. | |
276 | ||
277 | -e File exists. | |
8e7e0aa8 MJD |
278 | -z File has zero size (is empty). |
279 | -s File has nonzero size (returns size in bytes). | |
a0d0e21e LW |
280 | |
281 | -f File is a plain file. | |
282 | -d File is a directory. | |
283 | -l File is a symbolic link. | |
9c4d0f16 | 284 | -p File is a named pipe (FIFO), or Filehandle is a pipe. |
a0d0e21e LW |
285 | -S File is a socket. |
286 | -b File is a block special file. | |
287 | -c File is a character special file. | |
288 | -t Filehandle is opened to a tty. | |
289 | ||
290 | -u File has setuid bit set. | |
291 | -g File has setgid bit set. | |
292 | -k File has sticky bit set. | |
293 | ||
121910a4 | 294 | -T File is an ASCII text file (heuristic guess). |
2cdbc966 | 295 | -B File is a "binary" file (opposite of -T). |
a0d0e21e | 296 | |
95a3fe12 | 297 | -M Script start time minus file modification time, in days. |
a0d0e21e | 298 | -A Same for access time. |
95a3fe12 | 299 | -C Same for inode change time (Unix, may differ for other platforms) |
a0d0e21e | 300 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
301 | Example: |
302 | ||
303 | while (<>) { | |
5b3eff12 | 304 | chomp; |
a0d0e21e | 305 | next unless -f $_; # ignore specials |
5a964f20 | 306 | #... |
a0d0e21e LW |
307 | } |
308 | ||
5ff3f7a4 GS |
309 | The interpretation of the file permission operators C<-r>, C<-R>, |
310 | C<-w>, C<-W>, C<-x>, and C<-X> is by default based solely on the mode | |
311 | of the file and the uids and gids of the user. There may be other | |
312 | reasons you can't actually read, write, or execute the file. Such | |
313 | reasons may be for example network filesystem access controls, ACLs | |
314 | (access control lists), read-only filesystems, and unrecognized | |
315 | executable formats. | |
316 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
317 | Also note that, for the superuser on the local filesystems, the C<-r>, |
318 | C<-R>, C<-w>, and C<-W> tests always return 1, and C<-x> and C<-X> return 1 | |
5ff3f7a4 GS |
319 | if any execute bit is set in the mode. Scripts run by the superuser |
320 | may thus need to do a stat() to determine the actual mode of the file, | |
2b5ab1e7 | 321 | or temporarily set their effective uid to something else. |
5ff3f7a4 GS |
322 | |
323 | If you are using ACLs, there is a pragma called C<filetest> that may | |
324 | produce more accurate results than the bare stat() mode bits. | |
5ff3f7a4 GS |
325 | When under the C<use filetest 'access'> the above-mentioned filetests |
326 | will test whether the permission can (not) be granted using the | |
468541a8 | 327 | access() family of system calls. Also note that the C<-x> and C<-X> may |
5ff3f7a4 GS |
328 | under this pragma return true even if there are no execute permission |
329 | bits set (nor any extra execute permission ACLs). This strangeness is | |
330 | due to the underlying system calls' definitions. Read the | |
331 | documentation for the C<filetest> pragma for more information. | |
332 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
333 | Note that C<-s/a/b/> does not do a negated substitution. Saying |
334 | C<-exp($foo)> still works as expected, however--only single letters | |
335 | following a minus are interpreted as file tests. | |
336 | ||
337 | The C<-T> and C<-B> switches work as follows. The first block or so of the | |
338 | file is examined for odd characters such as strange control codes or | |
61eff3bc | 339 | characters with the high bit set. If too many strange characters (>30%) |
a0d0e21e LW |
340 | are found, it's a C<-B> file, otherwise it's a C<-T> file. Also, any file |
341 | containing null in the first block is considered a binary file. If C<-T> | |
9124316e | 342 | or C<-B> is used on a filehandle, the current IO buffer is examined |
19799a22 | 343 | rather than the first block. Both C<-T> and C<-B> return true on a null |
54310121 | 344 | file, or a file at EOF when testing a filehandle. Because you have to |
4633a7c4 LW |
345 | read a file to do the C<-T> test, on most occasions you want to use a C<-f> |
346 | against the file first, as in C<next unless -f $file && -T $file>. | |
a0d0e21e | 347 | |
19799a22 | 348 | If any of the file tests (or either the C<stat> or C<lstat> operators) are given |
28757baa | 349 | the special filehandle consisting of a solitary underline, then the stat |
a0d0e21e LW |
350 | structure of the previous file test (or stat operator) is used, saving |
351 | a system call. (This doesn't work with C<-t>, and you need to remember | |
352 | that lstat() and C<-l> will leave values in the stat structure for the | |
5c9aa243 RGS |
353 | symbolic link, not the real file.) (Also, if the stat buffer was filled by |
354 | a C<lstat> call, C<-T> and C<-B> will reset it with the results of C<stat _>). | |
355 | Example: | |
a0d0e21e LW |
356 | |
357 | print "Can do.\n" if -r $a || -w _ || -x _; | |
358 | ||
359 | stat($filename); | |
360 | print "Readable\n" if -r _; | |
361 | print "Writable\n" if -w _; | |
362 | print "Executable\n" if -x _; | |
363 | print "Setuid\n" if -u _; | |
364 | print "Setgid\n" if -g _; | |
365 | print "Sticky\n" if -k _; | |
366 | print "Text\n" if -T _; | |
367 | print "Binary\n" if -B _; | |
368 | ||
fbb0b3b3 RGS |
369 | As of Perl 5.9.1, as a form of purely syntactic sugar, you can stack file |
370 | test operators, in a way that C<-f -w -x $file> is equivalent to | |
371 | C<-x $file && -w _ && -f _>. (This is only syntax fancy : if you use | |
372 | the return value of C<-f $file> as an argument to another filetest | |
373 | operator, no special magic will happen.) | |
374 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
375 | =item abs VALUE |
376 | ||
54310121 | 377 | =item abs |
bbce6d69 | 378 | |
a0d0e21e | 379 | Returns the absolute value of its argument. |
7660c0ab | 380 | If VALUE is omitted, uses C<$_>. |
a0d0e21e LW |
381 | |
382 | =item accept NEWSOCKET,GENERICSOCKET | |
383 | ||
f86cebdf | 384 | Accepts an incoming socket connect, just as the accept(2) system call |
19799a22 | 385 | does. Returns the packed address if it succeeded, false otherwise. |
2b5ab1e7 | 386 | See the example in L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">. |
a0d0e21e | 387 | |
8d2a6795 GS |
388 | On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will |
389 | be set for the newly opened file descriptor, as determined by the | |
390 | value of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>. | |
391 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
392 | =item alarm SECONDS |
393 | ||
54310121 | 394 | =item alarm |
bbce6d69 | 395 | |
a0d0e21e | 396 | Arranges to have a SIGALRM delivered to this process after the |
d400eac8 JH |
397 | specified number of wallclock seconds have elapsed. If SECONDS is not |
398 | specified, the value stored in C<$_> is used. (On some machines, | |
399 | unfortunately, the elapsed time may be up to one second less or more | |
400 | than you specified because of how seconds are counted, and process | |
401 | scheduling may delay the delivery of the signal even further.) | |
402 | ||
403 | Only one timer may be counting at once. Each call disables the | |
404 | previous timer, and an argument of C<0> may be supplied to cancel the | |
405 | previous timer without starting a new one. The returned value is the | |
406 | amount of time remaining on the previous timer. | |
a0d0e21e | 407 | |
4633a7c4 | 408 | For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's |
19799a22 GS |
409 | four-argument version of select() leaving the first three arguments |
410 | undefined, or you might be able to use the C<syscall> interface to | |
83df6a1d JH |
411 | access setitimer(2) if your system supports it. The Time::HiRes |
412 | module (from CPAN, and starting from Perl 5.8 part of the standard | |
413 | distribution) may also prove useful. | |
2b5ab1e7 | 414 | |
68f8bed4 JH |
415 | It is usually a mistake to intermix C<alarm> and C<sleep> calls. |
416 | (C<sleep> may be internally implemented in your system with C<alarm>) | |
a0d0e21e | 417 | |
19799a22 GS |
418 | If you want to use C<alarm> to time out a system call you need to use an |
419 | C<eval>/C<die> pair. You can't rely on the alarm causing the system call to | |
f86cebdf | 420 | fail with C<$!> set to C<EINTR> because Perl sets up signal handlers to |
19799a22 | 421 | restart system calls on some systems. Using C<eval>/C<die> always works, |
5a964f20 | 422 | modulo the caveats given in L<perlipc/"Signals">. |
ff68c719 | 423 | |
424 | eval { | |
f86cebdf | 425 | local $SIG{ALRM} = sub { die "alarm\n" }; # NB: \n required |
36477c24 | 426 | alarm $timeout; |
ff68c719 | 427 | $nread = sysread SOCKET, $buffer, $size; |
36477c24 | 428 | alarm 0; |
ff68c719 | 429 | }; |
ff68c719 | 430 | if ($@) { |
f86cebdf | 431 | die unless $@ eq "alarm\n"; # propagate unexpected errors |
ff68c719 | 432 | # timed out |
433 | } | |
434 | else { | |
435 | # didn't | |
436 | } | |
437 | ||
91d81acc JH |
438 | For more information see L<perlipc>. |
439 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
440 | =item atan2 Y,X |
441 | ||
442 | Returns the arctangent of Y/X in the range -PI to PI. | |
443 | ||
ca6e1c26 | 444 | For the tangent operation, you may use the C<Math::Trig::tan> |
28757baa | 445 | function, or use the familiar relation: |
446 | ||
447 | sub tan { sin($_[0]) / cos($_[0]) } | |
448 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
449 | =item bind SOCKET,NAME |
450 | ||
451 | Binds a network address to a socket, just as the bind system call | |
19799a22 | 452 | does. Returns true if it succeeded, false otherwise. NAME should be a |
4633a7c4 LW |
453 | packed address of the appropriate type for the socket. See the examples in |
454 | L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">. | |
a0d0e21e | 455 | |
fae2c0fb | 456 | =item binmode FILEHANDLE, LAYER |
1c1fc3ea | 457 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
458 | =item binmode FILEHANDLE |
459 | ||
1cbfc93d NIS |
460 | Arranges for FILEHANDLE to be read or written in "binary" or "text" |
461 | mode on systems where the run-time libraries distinguish between | |
462 | binary and text files. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value is | |
463 | taken as the name of the filehandle. Returns true on success, | |
b5fe5ca2 | 464 | otherwise it returns C<undef> and sets C<$!> (errno). |
1cbfc93d | 465 | |
d807c6f4 JH |
466 | On some systems (in general, DOS and Windows-based systems) binmode() |
467 | is necessary when you're not working with a text file. For the sake | |
468 | of portability it is a good idea to always use it when appropriate, | |
469 | and to never use it when it isn't appropriate. Also, people can | |
470 | set their I/O to be by default UTF-8 encoded Unicode, not bytes. | |
471 | ||
472 | In other words: regardless of platform, use binmode() on binary data, | |
473 | like for example images. | |
474 | ||
475 | If LAYER is present it is a single string, but may contain multiple | |
476 | directives. The directives alter the behaviour of the file handle. | |
477 | When LAYER is present using binmode on text file makes sense. | |
478 | ||
fae2c0fb | 479 | If LAYER is omitted or specified as C<:raw> the filehandle is made |
0226bbdb NIS |
480 | suitable for passing binary data. This includes turning off possible CRLF |
481 | translation and marking it as bytes (as opposed to Unicode characters). | |
749683d2 YST |
482 | Note that, despite what may be implied in I<"Programming Perl"> (the |
483 | Camel) or elsewhere, C<:raw> is I<not> the simply inverse of C<:crlf> | |
fae2c0fb | 484 | -- other layers which would affect binary nature of the stream are |
0226bbdb NIS |
485 | I<also> disabled. See L<PerlIO>, L<perlrun> and the discussion about the |
486 | PERLIO environment variable. | |
01e6739c | 487 | |
d807c6f4 JH |
488 | The C<:bytes>, C<:crlf>, and C<:utf8>, and any other directives of the |
489 | form C<:...>, are called I/O I<layers>. The C<open> pragma can be used to | |
490 | establish default I/O layers. See L<open>. | |
491 | ||
fae2c0fb RGS |
492 | I<The LAYER parameter of the binmode() function is described as "DISCIPLINE" |
493 | in "Programming Perl, 3rd Edition". However, since the publishing of this | |
494 | book, by many known as "Camel III", the consensus of the naming of this | |
495 | functionality has moved from "discipline" to "layer". All documentation | |
496 | of this version of Perl therefore refers to "layers" rather than to | |
497 | "disciplines". Now back to the regularly scheduled documentation...> | |
498 | ||
01e6739c | 499 | To mark FILEHANDLE as UTF-8, use C<:utf8>. |
1cbfc93d | 500 | |
ed53a2bb | 501 | In general, binmode() should be called after open() but before any I/O |
01e6739c NIS |
502 | is done on the filehandle. Calling binmode() will normally flush any |
503 | pending buffered output data (and perhaps pending input data) on the | |
fae2c0fb | 504 | handle. An exception to this is the C<:encoding> layer that |
01e6739c | 505 | changes the default character encoding of the handle, see L<open>. |
fae2c0fb | 506 | The C<:encoding> layer sometimes needs to be called in |
3874323d JH |
507 | mid-stream, and it doesn't flush the stream. The C<:encoding> |
508 | also implicitly pushes on top of itself the C<:utf8> layer because | |
509 | internally Perl will operate on UTF-8 encoded Unicode characters. | |
16fe6d59 | 510 | |
19799a22 | 511 | The operating system, device drivers, C libraries, and Perl run-time |
30168b04 GS |
512 | system all work together to let the programmer treat a single |
513 | character (C<\n>) as the line terminator, irrespective of the external | |
514 | representation. On many operating systems, the native text file | |
515 | representation matches the internal representation, but on some | |
516 | platforms the external representation of C<\n> is made up of more than | |
517 | one character. | |
518 | ||
68bd7414 NIS |
519 | Mac OS, all variants of Unix, and Stream_LF files on VMS use a single |
520 | character to end each line in the external representation of text (even | |
5e12dbfa | 521 | though that single character is CARRIAGE RETURN on Mac OS and LINE FEED |
01e6739c NIS |
522 | on Unix and most VMS files). In other systems like OS/2, DOS and the |
523 | various flavors of MS-Windows your program sees a C<\n> as a simple C<\cJ>, | |
524 | but what's stored in text files are the two characters C<\cM\cJ>. That | |
525 | means that, if you don't use binmode() on these systems, C<\cM\cJ> | |
526 | sequences on disk will be converted to C<\n> on input, and any C<\n> in | |
527 | your program will be converted back to C<\cM\cJ> on output. This is what | |
528 | you want for text files, but it can be disastrous for binary files. | |
30168b04 GS |
529 | |
530 | Another consequence of using binmode() (on some systems) is that | |
531 | special end-of-file markers will be seen as part of the data stream. | |
532 | For systems from the Microsoft family this means that if your binary | |
4375e838 | 533 | data contains C<\cZ>, the I/O subsystem will regard it as the end of |
30168b04 GS |
534 | the file, unless you use binmode(). |
535 | ||
536 | binmode() is not only important for readline() and print() operations, | |
537 | but also when using read(), seek(), sysread(), syswrite() and tell() | |
538 | (see L<perlport> for more details). See the C<$/> and C<$\> variables | |
539 | in L<perlvar> for how to manually set your input and output | |
540 | line-termination sequences. | |
a0d0e21e | 541 | |
4633a7c4 | 542 | =item bless REF,CLASSNAME |
a0d0e21e LW |
543 | |
544 | =item bless REF | |
545 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
546 | This function tells the thingy referenced by REF that it is now an object |
547 | in the CLASSNAME package. If CLASSNAME is omitted, the current package | |
19799a22 | 548 | is used. Because a C<bless> is often the last thing in a constructor, |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
549 | it returns the reference for convenience. Always use the two-argument |
550 | version if the function doing the blessing might be inherited by a | |
551 | derived class. See L<perltoot> and L<perlobj> for more about the blessing | |
552 | (and blessings) of objects. | |
a0d0e21e | 553 | |
57668c4d | 554 | Consider always blessing objects in CLASSNAMEs that are mixed case. |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
555 | Namespaces with all lowercase names are considered reserved for |
556 | Perl pragmata. Builtin types have all uppercase names, so to prevent | |
557 | confusion, you may wish to avoid such package names as well. Make sure | |
558 | that CLASSNAME is a true value. | |
60ad88b8 GS |
559 | |
560 | See L<perlmod/"Perl Modules">. | |
561 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
562 | =item caller EXPR |
563 | ||
564 | =item caller | |
565 | ||
5a964f20 | 566 | Returns the context of the current subroutine call. In scalar context, |
28757baa | 567 | returns the caller's package name if there is a caller, that is, if |
19799a22 | 568 | we're in a subroutine or C<eval> or C<require>, and the undefined value |
5a964f20 | 569 | otherwise. In list context, returns |
a0d0e21e | 570 | |
748a9306 | 571 | ($package, $filename, $line) = caller; |
a0d0e21e LW |
572 | |
573 | With EXPR, it returns some extra information that the debugger uses to | |
574 | print a stack trace. The value of EXPR indicates how many call frames | |
575 | to go back before the current one. | |
576 | ||
f3aa04c2 | 577 | ($package, $filename, $line, $subroutine, $hasargs, |
e476b1b5 | 578 | $wantarray, $evaltext, $is_require, $hints, $bitmask) = caller($i); |
e7ea3e70 | 579 | |
951ba7fe | 580 | Here $subroutine may be C<(eval)> if the frame is not a subroutine |
19799a22 | 581 | call, but an C<eval>. In such a case additional elements $evaltext and |
7660c0ab | 582 | C<$is_require> are set: C<$is_require> is true if the frame is created by a |
19799a22 | 583 | C<require> or C<use> statement, $evaltext contains the text of the |
277ddfaf | 584 | C<eval EXPR> statement. In particular, for an C<eval BLOCK> statement, |
951ba7fe | 585 | $filename is C<(eval)>, but $evaltext is undefined. (Note also that |
0fc9dec4 RGS |
586 | each C<use> statement creates a C<require> frame inside an C<eval EXPR> |
587 | frame.) $subroutine may also be C<(unknown)> if this particular | |
588 | subroutine happens to have been deleted from the symbol table. | |
589 | C<$hasargs> is true if a new instance of C<@_> was set up for the frame. | |
590 | C<$hints> and C<$bitmask> contain pragmatic hints that the caller was | |
591 | compiled with. The C<$hints> and C<$bitmask> values are subject to change | |
592 | between versions of Perl, and are not meant for external use. | |
748a9306 LW |
593 | |
594 | Furthermore, when called from within the DB package, caller returns more | |
7660c0ab | 595 | detailed information: it sets the list variable C<@DB::args> to be the |
54310121 | 596 | arguments with which the subroutine was invoked. |
748a9306 | 597 | |
7660c0ab | 598 | Be aware that the optimizer might have optimized call frames away before |
19799a22 | 599 | C<caller> had a chance to get the information. That means that C<caller(N)> |
7660c0ab | 600 | might not return information about the call frame you expect it do, for |
b76cc8ba | 601 | C<< N > 1 >>. In particular, C<@DB::args> might have information from the |
19799a22 | 602 | previous time C<caller> was called. |
7660c0ab | 603 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
604 | =item chdir EXPR |
605 | ||
ffce7b87 | 606 | Changes the working directory to EXPR, if possible. If EXPR is omitted, |
0bfc1ec4 | 607 | changes to the directory specified by C<$ENV{HOME}>, if set; if not, |
ffce7b87 | 608 | changes to the directory specified by C<$ENV{LOGDIR}>. (Under VMS, the |
b4ad75f0 AMS |
609 | variable C<$ENV{SYS$LOGIN}> is also checked, and used if it is set.) If |
610 | neither is set, C<chdir> does nothing. It returns true upon success, | |
611 | false otherwise. See the example under C<die>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
612 | |
613 | =item chmod LIST | |
614 | ||
615 | Changes the permissions of a list of files. The first element of the | |
4633a7c4 | 616 | list must be the numerical mode, which should probably be an octal |
2f9daede TP |
617 | number, and which definitely should I<not> a string of octal digits: |
618 | C<0644> is okay, C<'0644'> is not. Returns the number of files | |
dc848c6f | 619 | successfully changed. See also L</oct>, if all you have is a string. |
a0d0e21e LW |
620 | |
621 | $cnt = chmod 0755, 'foo', 'bar'; | |
622 | chmod 0755, @executables; | |
f86cebdf GS |
623 | $mode = '0644'; chmod $mode, 'foo'; # !!! sets mode to |
624 | # --w----r-T | |
2f9daede TP |
625 | $mode = '0644'; chmod oct($mode), 'foo'; # this is better |
626 | $mode = 0644; chmod $mode, 'foo'; # this is best | |
a0d0e21e | 627 | |
ca6e1c26 JH |
628 | You can also import the symbolic C<S_I*> constants from the Fcntl |
629 | module: | |
630 | ||
631 | use Fcntl ':mode'; | |
632 | ||
633 | chmod S_IRWXU|S_IRGRP|S_IXGRP|S_IROTH|S_IXOTH, @executables; | |
634 | # This is identical to the chmod 0755 of the above example. | |
635 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
636 | =item chomp VARIABLE |
637 | ||
313c9f5c | 638 | =item chomp( LIST ) |
a0d0e21e LW |
639 | |
640 | =item chomp | |
641 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
642 | This safer version of L</chop> removes any trailing string |
643 | that corresponds to the current value of C<$/> (also known as | |
28757baa | 644 | $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR in the C<English> module). It returns the total |
645 | number of characters removed from all its arguments. It's often used to | |
646 | remove the newline from the end of an input record when you're worried | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
647 | that the final record may be missing its newline. When in paragraph |
648 | mode (C<$/ = "">), it removes all trailing newlines from the string. | |
4c5a6083 GS |
649 | When in slurp mode (C<$/ = undef>) or fixed-length record mode (C<$/> is |
650 | a reference to an integer or the like, see L<perlvar>) chomp() won't | |
b76cc8ba | 651 | remove anything. |
19799a22 | 652 | If VARIABLE is omitted, it chomps C<$_>. Example: |
a0d0e21e LW |
653 | |
654 | while (<>) { | |
655 | chomp; # avoid \n on last field | |
656 | @array = split(/:/); | |
5a964f20 | 657 | # ... |
a0d0e21e LW |
658 | } |
659 | ||
4bf21a6d RD |
660 | If VARIABLE is a hash, it chomps the hash's values, but not its keys. |
661 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
662 | You can actually chomp anything that's an lvalue, including an assignment: |
663 | ||
664 | chomp($cwd = `pwd`); | |
665 | chomp($answer = <STDIN>); | |
666 | ||
667 | If you chomp a list, each element is chomped, and the total number of | |
668 | characters removed is returned. | |
669 | ||
442a8c12 NC |
670 | If the C<encoding> pragma is in scope then the lengths returned are |
671 | calculated from the length of C<$/> in Unicode characters, which is not | |
672 | always the same as the length of C<$/> in the native encoding. | |
673 | ||
15e44fd8 RGS |
674 | Note that parentheses are necessary when you're chomping anything |
675 | that is not a simple variable. This is because C<chomp $cwd = `pwd`;> | |
676 | is interpreted as C<(chomp $cwd) = `pwd`;>, rather than as | |
677 | C<chomp( $cwd = `pwd` )> which you might expect. Similarly, | |
678 | C<chomp $a, $b> is interpreted as C<chomp($a), $b> rather than | |
679 | as C<chomp($a, $b)>. | |
680 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
681 | =item chop VARIABLE |
682 | ||
313c9f5c | 683 | =item chop( LIST ) |
a0d0e21e LW |
684 | |
685 | =item chop | |
686 | ||
687 | Chops off the last character of a string and returns the character | |
5b3eff12 | 688 | chopped. It is much more efficient than C<s/.$//s> because it neither |
7660c0ab | 689 | scans nor copies the string. If VARIABLE is omitted, chops C<$_>. |
4bf21a6d RD |
690 | If VARIABLE is a hash, it chops the hash's values, but not its keys. |
691 | ||
5b3eff12 | 692 | You can actually chop anything that's an lvalue, including an assignment. |
a0d0e21e LW |
693 | |
694 | If you chop a list, each element is chopped. Only the value of the | |
19799a22 | 695 | last C<chop> is returned. |
a0d0e21e | 696 | |
19799a22 | 697 | Note that C<chop> returns the last character. To return all but the last |
748a9306 LW |
698 | character, use C<substr($string, 0, -1)>. |
699 | ||
15e44fd8 RGS |
700 | See also L</chomp>. |
701 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
702 | =item chown LIST |
703 | ||
704 | Changes the owner (and group) of a list of files. The first two | |
19799a22 GS |
705 | elements of the list must be the I<numeric> uid and gid, in that |
706 | order. A value of -1 in either position is interpreted by most | |
707 | systems to leave that value unchanged. Returns the number of files | |
708 | successfully changed. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
709 | |
710 | $cnt = chown $uid, $gid, 'foo', 'bar'; | |
711 | chown $uid, $gid, @filenames; | |
712 | ||
54310121 | 713 | Here's an example that looks up nonnumeric uids in the passwd file: |
a0d0e21e LW |
714 | |
715 | print "User: "; | |
19799a22 | 716 | chomp($user = <STDIN>); |
5a964f20 | 717 | print "Files: "; |
19799a22 | 718 | chomp($pattern = <STDIN>); |
a0d0e21e LW |
719 | |
720 | ($login,$pass,$uid,$gid) = getpwnam($user) | |
721 | or die "$user not in passwd file"; | |
722 | ||
5a964f20 | 723 | @ary = glob($pattern); # expand filenames |
a0d0e21e LW |
724 | chown $uid, $gid, @ary; |
725 | ||
54310121 | 726 | On most systems, you are not allowed to change the ownership of the |
4633a7c4 LW |
727 | file unless you're the superuser, although you should be able to change |
728 | the group to any of your secondary groups. On insecure systems, these | |
729 | restrictions may be relaxed, but this is not a portable assumption. | |
19799a22 GS |
730 | On POSIX systems, you can detect this condition this way: |
731 | ||
732 | use POSIX qw(sysconf _PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED); | |
733 | $can_chown_giveaway = not sysconf(_PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED); | |
4633a7c4 | 734 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
735 | =item chr NUMBER |
736 | ||
54310121 | 737 | =item chr |
bbce6d69 | 738 | |
a0d0e21e | 739 | Returns the character represented by that NUMBER in the character set. |
a0ed51b3 | 740 | For example, C<chr(65)> is C<"A"> in either ASCII or Unicode, and |
1e54db1a JH |
741 | chr(0x263a) is a Unicode smiley face. Note that characters from 128 |
742 | to 255 (inclusive) are by default not encoded in UTF-8 Unicode for | |
743 | backward compatibility reasons (but see L<encoding>). | |
aaa68c4a | 744 | |
974da8e5 JH |
745 | If NUMBER is omitted, uses C<$_>. |
746 | ||
b76cc8ba | 747 | For the reverse, use L</ord>. |
a0d0e21e | 748 | |
974da8e5 JH |
749 | Note that under the C<bytes> pragma the NUMBER is masked to |
750 | the low eight bits. | |
751 | ||
752 | See L<perlunicode> and L<encoding> for more about Unicode. | |
bbce6d69 | 753 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
754 | =item chroot FILENAME |
755 | ||
54310121 | 756 | =item chroot |
bbce6d69 | 757 | |
5a964f20 | 758 | This function works like the system call by the same name: it makes the |
4633a7c4 | 759 | named directory the new root directory for all further pathnames that |
951ba7fe | 760 | begin with a C</> by your process and all its children. (It doesn't |
28757baa | 761 | change your current working directory, which is unaffected.) For security |
4633a7c4 | 762 | reasons, this call is restricted to the superuser. If FILENAME is |
19799a22 | 763 | omitted, does a C<chroot> to C<$_>. |
a0d0e21e LW |
764 | |
765 | =item close FILEHANDLE | |
766 | ||
6a518fbc TP |
767 | =item close |
768 | ||
9124316e JH |
769 | Closes the file or pipe associated with the file handle, returning |
770 | true only if IO buffers are successfully flushed and closes the system | |
771 | file descriptor. Closes the currently selected filehandle if the | |
772 | argument is omitted. | |
fb73857a | 773 | |
774 | You don't have to close FILEHANDLE if you are immediately going to do | |
19799a22 GS |
775 | another C<open> on it, because C<open> will close it for you. (See |
776 | C<open>.) However, an explicit C<close> on an input file resets the line | |
777 | counter (C<$.>), while the implicit close done by C<open> does not. | |
fb73857a | 778 | |
dede8123 RGS |
779 | If the file handle came from a piped open, C<close> will additionally |
780 | return false if one of the other system calls involved fails, or if the | |
fb73857a | 781 | program exits with non-zero status. (If the only problem was that the |
dede8123 | 782 | program exited non-zero, C<$!> will be set to C<0>.) Closing a pipe |
2b5ab1e7 | 783 | also waits for the process executing on the pipe to complete, in case you |
b76cc8ba | 784 | want to look at the output of the pipe afterwards, and |
2b5ab1e7 | 785 | implicitly puts the exit status value of that command into C<$?>. |
5a964f20 | 786 | |
73689b13 GS |
787 | Prematurely closing the read end of a pipe (i.e. before the process |
788 | writing to it at the other end has closed it) will result in a | |
789 | SIGPIPE being delivered to the writer. If the other end can't | |
790 | handle that, be sure to read all the data before closing the pipe. | |
791 | ||
fb73857a | 792 | Example: |
a0d0e21e | 793 | |
fb73857a | 794 | open(OUTPUT, '|sort >foo') # pipe to sort |
795 | or die "Can't start sort: $!"; | |
5a964f20 | 796 | #... # print stuff to output |
fb73857a | 797 | close OUTPUT # wait for sort to finish |
798 | or warn $! ? "Error closing sort pipe: $!" | |
799 | : "Exit status $? from sort"; | |
800 | open(INPUT, 'foo') # get sort's results | |
801 | or die "Can't open 'foo' for input: $!"; | |
a0d0e21e | 802 | |
5a964f20 TC |
803 | FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used as an indirect |
804 | filehandle, usually the real filehandle name. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
805 | |
806 | =item closedir DIRHANDLE | |
807 | ||
19799a22 | 808 | Closes a directory opened by C<opendir> and returns the success of that |
5a964f20 TC |
809 | system call. |
810 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
811 | =item connect SOCKET,NAME |
812 | ||
813 | Attempts to connect to a remote socket, just as the connect system call | |
19799a22 | 814 | does. Returns true if it succeeded, false otherwise. NAME should be a |
4633a7c4 LW |
815 | packed address of the appropriate type for the socket. See the examples in |
816 | L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">. | |
a0d0e21e | 817 | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
818 | =item continue BLOCK |
819 | ||
820 | Actually a flow control statement rather than a function. If there is a | |
98293880 JH |
821 | C<continue> BLOCK attached to a BLOCK (typically in a C<while> or |
822 | C<foreach>), it is always executed just before the conditional is about to | |
823 | be evaluated again, just like the third part of a C<for> loop in C. Thus | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
824 | it can be used to increment a loop variable, even when the loop has been |
825 | continued via the C<next> statement (which is similar to the C C<continue> | |
826 | statement). | |
827 | ||
98293880 | 828 | C<last>, C<next>, or C<redo> may appear within a C<continue> |
19799a22 GS |
829 | block. C<last> and C<redo> will behave as if they had been executed within |
830 | the main block. So will C<next>, but since it will execute a C<continue> | |
1d2dff63 GS |
831 | block, it may be more entertaining. |
832 | ||
833 | while (EXPR) { | |
834 | ### redo always comes here | |
835 | do_something; | |
836 | } continue { | |
837 | ### next always comes here | |
838 | do_something_else; | |
839 | # then back the top to re-check EXPR | |
840 | } | |
841 | ### last always comes here | |
842 | ||
843 | Omitting the C<continue> section is semantically equivalent to using an | |
19799a22 | 844 | empty one, logically enough. In that case, C<next> goes directly back |
1d2dff63 GS |
845 | to check the condition at the top of the loop. |
846 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
847 | =item cos EXPR |
848 | ||
d6217f1e GS |
849 | =item cos |
850 | ||
5a964f20 | 851 | Returns the cosine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted, |
7660c0ab | 852 | takes cosine of C<$_>. |
a0d0e21e | 853 | |
ca6e1c26 | 854 | For the inverse cosine operation, you may use the C<Math::Trig::acos()> |
28757baa | 855 | function, or use this relation: |
856 | ||
857 | sub acos { atan2( sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0]), $_[0] ) } | |
858 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
859 | =item crypt PLAINTEXT,SALT |
860 | ||
f86cebdf | 861 | Encrypts a string exactly like the crypt(3) function in the C library |
4633a7c4 LW |
862 | (assuming that you actually have a version there that has not been |
863 | extirpated as a potential munition). This can prove useful for checking | |
864 | the password file for lousy passwords, amongst other things. Only the | |
865 | guys wearing white hats should do this. | |
a0d0e21e | 866 | |
a6d05634 | 867 | Note that L<crypt|/crypt> is intended to be a one-way function, much like |
85c16d83 JH |
868 | breaking eggs to make an omelette. There is no (known) corresponding |
869 | decrypt function (in other words, the crypt() is a one-way hash | |
870 | function). As a result, this function isn't all that useful for | |
11155c91 | 871 | cryptography. (For that, see your nearby CPAN mirror.) |
2f9daede | 872 | |
85c16d83 JH |
873 | When verifying an existing encrypted string you should use the |
874 | encrypted text as the salt (like C<crypt($plain, $crypted) eq | |
8e2ffcbe | 875 | $crypted>). This allows your code to work with the standard L<crypt|/crypt> |
85c16d83 JH |
876 | and with more exotic implementations. In other words, do not assume |
877 | anything about the returned string itself, or how many bytes in | |
878 | the encrypted string matter. | |
879 | ||
880 | Traditionally the result is a string of 13 bytes: two first bytes of | |
881 | the salt, followed by 11 bytes from the set C<[./0-9A-Za-z]>, and only | |
882 | the first eight bytes of the encrypted string mattered, but | |
883 | alternative hashing schemes (like MD5), higher level security schemes | |
884 | (like C2), and implementations on non-UNIX platforms may produce | |
885 | different strings. | |
886 | ||
887 | When choosing a new salt create a random two character string whose | |
888 | characters come from the set C<[./0-9A-Za-z]> (like C<join '', ('.', | |
d3989d75 CW |
889 | '/', 0..9, 'A'..'Z', 'a'..'z')[rand 64, rand 64]>). This set of |
890 | characters is just a recommendation; the characters allowed in | |
891 | the salt depend solely on your system's crypt library, and Perl can't | |
892 | restrict what salts C<crypt()> accepts. | |
e71965be | 893 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
894 | Here's an example that makes sure that whoever runs this program knows |
895 | their own password: | |
896 | ||
897 | $pwd = (getpwuid($<))[1]; | |
a0d0e21e LW |
898 | |
899 | system "stty -echo"; | |
900 | print "Password: "; | |
e71965be | 901 | chomp($word = <STDIN>); |
a0d0e21e LW |
902 | print "\n"; |
903 | system "stty echo"; | |
904 | ||
e71965be | 905 | if (crypt($word, $pwd) ne $pwd) { |
a0d0e21e LW |
906 | die "Sorry...\n"; |
907 | } else { | |
908 | print "ok\n"; | |
54310121 | 909 | } |
a0d0e21e | 910 | |
9f8f0c9d | 911 | Of course, typing in your own password to whoever asks you |
748a9306 | 912 | for it is unwise. |
a0d0e21e | 913 | |
8e2ffcbe | 914 | The L<crypt|/crypt> function is unsuitable for encrypting large quantities |
19799a22 GS |
915 | of data, not least of all because you can't get the information |
916 | back. Look at the F<by-module/Crypt> and F<by-module/PGP> directories | |
917 | on your favorite CPAN mirror for a slew of potentially useful | |
918 | modules. | |
919 | ||
f2791508 JH |
920 | If using crypt() on a Unicode string (which I<potentially> has |
921 | characters with codepoints above 255), Perl tries to make sense | |
922 | of the situation by trying to downgrade (a copy of the string) | |
923 | the string back to an eight-bit byte string before calling crypt() | |
924 | (on that copy). If that works, good. If not, crypt() dies with | |
925 | C<Wide character in crypt>. | |
85c16d83 | 926 | |
aa689395 | 927 | =item dbmclose HASH |
a0d0e21e | 928 | |
19799a22 | 929 | [This function has been largely superseded by the C<untie> function.] |
a0d0e21e | 930 | |
aa689395 | 931 | Breaks the binding between a DBM file and a hash. |
a0d0e21e | 932 | |
19799a22 | 933 | =item dbmopen HASH,DBNAME,MASK |
a0d0e21e | 934 | |
19799a22 | 935 | [This function has been largely superseded by the C<tie> function.] |
a0d0e21e | 936 | |
7b8d334a | 937 | This binds a dbm(3), ndbm(3), sdbm(3), gdbm(3), or Berkeley DB file to a |
19799a22 GS |
938 | hash. HASH is the name of the hash. (Unlike normal C<open>, the first |
939 | argument is I<not> a filehandle, even though it looks like one). DBNAME | |
aa689395 | 940 | is the name of the database (without the F<.dir> or F<.pag> extension if |
941 | any). If the database does not exist, it is created with protection | |
19799a22 GS |
942 | specified by MASK (as modified by the C<umask>). If your system supports |
943 | only the older DBM functions, you may perform only one C<dbmopen> in your | |
aa689395 | 944 | program. In older versions of Perl, if your system had neither DBM nor |
19799a22 | 945 | ndbm, calling C<dbmopen> produced a fatal error; it now falls back to |
aa689395 | 946 | sdbm(3). |
947 | ||
948 | If you don't have write access to the DBM file, you can only read hash | |
949 | variables, not set them. If you want to test whether you can write, | |
19799a22 | 950 | either use file tests or try setting a dummy hash entry inside an C<eval>, |
aa689395 | 951 | which will trap the error. |
a0d0e21e | 952 | |
19799a22 GS |
953 | Note that functions such as C<keys> and C<values> may return huge lists |
954 | when used on large DBM files. You may prefer to use the C<each> | |
a0d0e21e LW |
955 | function to iterate over large DBM files. Example: |
956 | ||
957 | # print out history file offsets | |
958 | dbmopen(%HIST,'/usr/lib/news/history',0666); | |
959 | while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) { | |
960 | print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n"; | |
961 | } | |
962 | dbmclose(%HIST); | |
963 | ||
cb1a09d0 | 964 | See also L<AnyDBM_File> for a more general description of the pros and |
184e9718 | 965 | cons of the various dbm approaches, as well as L<DB_File> for a particularly |
cb1a09d0 | 966 | rich implementation. |
4633a7c4 | 967 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
968 | You can control which DBM library you use by loading that library |
969 | before you call dbmopen(): | |
970 | ||
971 | use DB_File; | |
972 | dbmopen(%NS_Hist, "$ENV{HOME}/.netscape/history.db") | |
973 | or die "Can't open netscape history file: $!"; | |
974 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
975 | =item defined EXPR |
976 | ||
54310121 | 977 | =item defined |
bbce6d69 | 978 | |
2f9daede TP |
979 | Returns a Boolean value telling whether EXPR has a value other than |
980 | the undefined value C<undef>. If EXPR is not present, C<$_> will be | |
981 | checked. | |
982 | ||
983 | Many operations return C<undef> to indicate failure, end of file, | |
984 | system error, uninitialized variable, and other exceptional | |
985 | conditions. This function allows you to distinguish C<undef> from | |
986 | other values. (A simple Boolean test will not distinguish among | |
7660c0ab | 987 | C<undef>, zero, the empty string, and C<"0">, which are all equally |
2f9daede | 988 | false.) Note that since C<undef> is a valid scalar, its presence |
19799a22 | 989 | doesn't I<necessarily> indicate an exceptional condition: C<pop> |
2f9daede TP |
990 | returns C<undef> when its argument is an empty array, I<or> when the |
991 | element to return happens to be C<undef>. | |
992 | ||
f10b0346 GS |
993 | You may also use C<defined(&func)> to check whether subroutine C<&func> |
994 | has ever been defined. The return value is unaffected by any forward | |
04891299 | 995 | declarations of C<&func>. Note that a subroutine which is not defined |
847c7ebe DD |
996 | may still be callable: its package may have an C<AUTOLOAD> method that |
997 | makes it spring into existence the first time that it is called -- see | |
998 | L<perlsub>. | |
f10b0346 GS |
999 | |
1000 | Use of C<defined> on aggregates (hashes and arrays) is deprecated. It | |
1001 | used to report whether memory for that aggregate has ever been | |
1002 | allocated. This behavior may disappear in future versions of Perl. | |
1003 | You should instead use a simple test for size: | |
1004 | ||
1005 | if (@an_array) { print "has array elements\n" } | |
1006 | if (%a_hash) { print "has hash members\n" } | |
2f9daede TP |
1007 | |
1008 | When used on a hash element, it tells you whether the value is defined, | |
dc848c6f | 1009 | not whether the key exists in the hash. Use L</exists> for the latter |
2f9daede | 1010 | purpose. |
a0d0e21e LW |
1011 | |
1012 | Examples: | |
1013 | ||
1014 | print if defined $switch{'D'}; | |
1015 | print "$val\n" while defined($val = pop(@ary)); | |
1016 | die "Can't readlink $sym: $!" | |
1017 | unless defined($value = readlink $sym); | |
a0d0e21e | 1018 | sub foo { defined &$bar ? &$bar(@_) : die "No bar"; } |
2f9daede | 1019 | $debugging = 0 unless defined $debugging; |
a0d0e21e | 1020 | |
19799a22 | 1021 | Note: Many folks tend to overuse C<defined>, and then are surprised to |
7660c0ab | 1022 | discover that the number C<0> and C<""> (the zero-length string) are, in fact, |
2f9daede | 1023 | defined values. For example, if you say |
a5f75d66 AD |
1024 | |
1025 | "ab" =~ /a(.*)b/; | |
1026 | ||
7660c0ab | 1027 | The pattern match succeeds, and C<$1> is defined, despite the fact that it |
a5f75d66 | 1028 | matched "nothing". But it didn't really match nothing--rather, it |
2b5ab1e7 | 1029 | matched something that happened to be zero characters long. This is all |
a5f75d66 | 1030 | very above-board and honest. When a function returns an undefined value, |
2f9daede | 1031 | it's an admission that it couldn't give you an honest answer. So you |
19799a22 | 1032 | should use C<defined> only when you're questioning the integrity of what |
7660c0ab | 1033 | you're trying to do. At other times, a simple comparison to C<0> or C<""> is |
2f9daede TP |
1034 | what you want. |
1035 | ||
dc848c6f | 1036 | See also L</undef>, L</exists>, L</ref>. |
2f9daede | 1037 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1038 | =item delete EXPR |
1039 | ||
01020589 GS |
1040 | Given an expression that specifies a hash element, array element, hash slice, |
1041 | or array slice, deletes the specified element(s) from the hash or array. | |
8216c1fd | 1042 | In the case of an array, if the array elements happen to be at the end, |
b76cc8ba | 1043 | the size of the array will shrink to the highest element that tests |
8216c1fd | 1044 | true for exists() (or 0 if no such element exists). |
a0d0e21e | 1045 | |
eba0920a EM |
1046 | Returns a list with the same number of elements as the number of elements |
1047 | for which deletion was attempted. Each element of that list consists of | |
1048 | either the value of the element deleted, or the undefined value. In scalar | |
1049 | context, this means that you get the value of the last element deleted (or | |
1050 | the undefined value if that element did not exist). | |
1051 | ||
1052 | %hash = (foo => 11, bar => 22, baz => 33); | |
1053 | $scalar = delete $hash{foo}; # $scalar is 11 | |
1054 | $scalar = delete @hash{qw(foo bar)}; # $scalar is 22 | |
1055 | @array = delete @hash{qw(foo bar baz)}; # @array is (undef,undef,33) | |
1056 | ||
1057 | Deleting from C<%ENV> modifies the environment. Deleting from | |
01020589 GS |
1058 | a hash tied to a DBM file deletes the entry from the DBM file. Deleting |
1059 | from a C<tie>d hash or array may not necessarily return anything. | |
1060 | ||
8ea97a1e GS |
1061 | Deleting an array element effectively returns that position of the array |
1062 | to its initial, uninitialized state. Subsequently testing for the same | |
8216c1fd GS |
1063 | element with exists() will return false. Note that deleting array |
1064 | elements in the middle of an array will not shift the index of the ones | |
1065 | after them down--use splice() for that. See L</exists>. | |
8ea97a1e | 1066 | |
01020589 | 1067 | The following (inefficiently) deletes all the values of %HASH and @ARRAY: |
a0d0e21e | 1068 | |
5f05dabc | 1069 | foreach $key (keys %HASH) { |
1070 | delete $HASH{$key}; | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1071 | } |
1072 | ||
01020589 GS |
1073 | foreach $index (0 .. $#ARRAY) { |
1074 | delete $ARRAY[$index]; | |
1075 | } | |
1076 | ||
1077 | And so do these: | |
5f05dabc | 1078 | |
01020589 GS |
1079 | delete @HASH{keys %HASH}; |
1080 | ||
9740c838 | 1081 | delete @ARRAY[0 .. $#ARRAY]; |
5f05dabc | 1082 | |
2b5ab1e7 | 1083 | But both of these are slower than just assigning the empty list |
01020589 GS |
1084 | or undefining %HASH or @ARRAY: |
1085 | ||
1086 | %HASH = (); # completely empty %HASH | |
1087 | undef %HASH; # forget %HASH ever existed | |
2b5ab1e7 | 1088 | |
01020589 GS |
1089 | @ARRAY = (); # completely empty @ARRAY |
1090 | undef @ARRAY; # forget @ARRAY ever existed | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1091 | |
1092 | Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the final | |
01020589 GS |
1093 | operation is a hash element, array element, hash slice, or array slice |
1094 | lookup: | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1095 | |
1096 | delete $ref->[$x][$y]{$key}; | |
5f05dabc | 1097 | delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}{$key1, $key2, @morekeys}; |
a0d0e21e | 1098 | |
01020589 GS |
1099 | delete $ref->[$x][$y][$index]; |
1100 | delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}[$index1, $index2, @moreindices]; | |
1101 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
1102 | =item die LIST |
1103 | ||
19799a22 GS |
1104 | Outside an C<eval>, prints the value of LIST to C<STDERR> and |
1105 | exits with the current value of C<$!> (errno). If C<$!> is C<0>, | |
61eff3bc JH |
1106 | exits with the value of C<<< ($? >> 8) >>> (backtick `command` |
1107 | status). If C<<< ($? >> 8) >>> is C<0>, exits with C<255>. Inside | |
19799a22 GS |
1108 | an C<eval(),> the error message is stuffed into C<$@> and the |
1109 | C<eval> is terminated with the undefined value. This makes | |
1110 | C<die> the way to raise an exception. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1111 | |
1112 | Equivalent examples: | |
1113 | ||
1114 | die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n" unless chdir '/usr/spool/news'; | |
54310121 | 1115 | chdir '/usr/spool/news' or die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n" |
a0d0e21e | 1116 | |
ccac6780 | 1117 | If the last element of LIST does not end in a newline, the current |
df37ec69 WW |
1118 | script line number and input line number (if any) are also printed, |
1119 | and a newline is supplied. Note that the "input line number" (also | |
1120 | known as "chunk") is subject to whatever notion of "line" happens to | |
1121 | be currently in effect, and is also available as the special variable | |
1122 | C<$.>. See L<perlvar/"$/"> and L<perlvar/"$.">. | |
1123 | ||
1124 | Hint: sometimes appending C<", stopped"> to your message will cause it | |
1125 | to make better sense when the string C<"at foo line 123"> is appended. | |
1126 | Suppose you are running script "canasta". | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1127 | |
1128 | die "/etc/games is no good"; | |
1129 | die "/etc/games is no good, stopped"; | |
1130 | ||
1131 | produce, respectively | |
1132 | ||
1133 | /etc/games is no good at canasta line 123. | |
1134 | /etc/games is no good, stopped at canasta line 123. | |
1135 | ||
2b5ab1e7 | 1136 | See also exit(), warn(), and the Carp module. |
a0d0e21e | 1137 | |
7660c0ab A |
1138 | If LIST is empty and C<$@> already contains a value (typically from a |
1139 | previous eval) that value is reused after appending C<"\t...propagated">. | |
fb73857a | 1140 | This is useful for propagating exceptions: |
1141 | ||
1142 | eval { ... }; | |
1143 | die unless $@ =~ /Expected exception/; | |
1144 | ||
ad216e65 JH |
1145 | If LIST is empty and C<$@> contains an object reference that has a |
1146 | C<PROPAGATE> method, that method will be called with additional file | |
1147 | and line number parameters. The return value replaces the value in | |
16869676 | 1148 | C<$@>. ie. as if C<< $@ = eval { $@->PROPAGATE(__FILE__, __LINE__) }; >> |
ad216e65 JH |
1149 | were called. |
1150 | ||
7660c0ab | 1151 | If C<$@> is empty then the string C<"Died"> is used. |
fb73857a | 1152 | |
52531d10 GS |
1153 | die() can also be called with a reference argument. If this happens to be |
1154 | trapped within an eval(), $@ contains the reference. This behavior permits | |
1155 | a more elaborate exception handling implementation using objects that | |
4375e838 | 1156 | maintain arbitrary state about the nature of the exception. Such a scheme |
52531d10 GS |
1157 | is sometimes preferable to matching particular string values of $@ using |
1158 | regular expressions. Here's an example: | |
1159 | ||
1160 | eval { ... ; die Some::Module::Exception->new( FOO => "bar" ) }; | |
1161 | if ($@) { | |
1162 | if (ref($@) && UNIVERSAL::isa($@,"Some::Module::Exception")) { | |
1163 | # handle Some::Module::Exception | |
1164 | } | |
1165 | else { | |
1166 | # handle all other possible exceptions | |
1167 | } | |
1168 | } | |
1169 | ||
19799a22 | 1170 | Because perl will stringify uncaught exception messages before displaying |
52531d10 GS |
1171 | them, you may want to overload stringification operations on such custom |
1172 | exception objects. See L<overload> for details about that. | |
1173 | ||
19799a22 GS |
1174 | You can arrange for a callback to be run just before the C<die> |
1175 | does its deed, by setting the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook. The associated | |
1176 | handler will be called with the error text and can change the error | |
1177 | message, if it sees fit, by calling C<die> again. See | |
1178 | L<perlvar/$SIG{expr}> for details on setting C<%SIG> entries, and | |
1179 | L<"eval BLOCK"> for some examples. Although this feature was meant | |
1180 | to be run only right before your program was to exit, this is not | |
1181 | currently the case--the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook is currently called | |
1182 | even inside eval()ed blocks/strings! If one wants the hook to do | |
1183 | nothing in such situations, put | |
fb73857a | 1184 | |
1185 | die @_ if $^S; | |
1186 | ||
19799a22 GS |
1187 | as the first line of the handler (see L<perlvar/$^S>). Because |
1188 | this promotes strange action at a distance, this counterintuitive | |
b76cc8ba | 1189 | behavior may be fixed in a future release. |
774d564b | 1190 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1191 | =item do BLOCK |
1192 | ||
1193 | Not really a function. Returns the value of the last command in the | |
1194 | sequence of commands indicated by BLOCK. When modified by a loop | |
98293880 JH |
1195 | modifier, executes the BLOCK once before testing the loop condition. |
1196 | (On other statements the loop modifiers test the conditional first.) | |
a0d0e21e | 1197 | |
4968c1e4 | 1198 | C<do BLOCK> does I<not> count as a loop, so the loop control statements |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1199 | C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> cannot be used to leave or restart the block. |
1200 | See L<perlsyn> for alternative strategies. | |
4968c1e4 | 1201 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1202 | =item do SUBROUTINE(LIST) |
1203 | ||
1204 | A deprecated form of subroutine call. See L<perlsub>. | |
1205 | ||
1206 | =item do EXPR | |
1207 | ||
1208 | Uses the value of EXPR as a filename and executes the contents of the | |
1209 | file as a Perl script. Its primary use is to include subroutines | |
1210 | from a Perl subroutine library. | |
1211 | ||
1212 | do 'stat.pl'; | |
1213 | ||
1214 | is just like | |
1215 | ||
986b19de | 1216 | eval `cat stat.pl`; |
a0d0e21e | 1217 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1218 | except that it's more efficient and concise, keeps track of the current |
1219 | filename for error messages, searches the @INC libraries, and updates | |
1220 | C<%INC> if the file is found. See L<perlvar/Predefined Names> for these | |
1221 | variables. It also differs in that code evaluated with C<do FILENAME> | |
1222 | cannot see lexicals in the enclosing scope; C<eval STRING> does. It's the | |
1223 | same, however, in that it does reparse the file every time you call it, | |
1224 | so you probably don't want to do this inside a loop. | |
a0d0e21e | 1225 | |
8e30cc93 | 1226 | If C<do> cannot read the file, it returns undef and sets C<$!> to the |
2b5ab1e7 | 1227 | error. If C<do> can read the file but cannot compile it, it |
8e30cc93 MG |
1228 | returns undef and sets an error message in C<$@>. If the file is |
1229 | successfully compiled, C<do> returns the value of the last expression | |
1230 | evaluated. | |
1231 | ||
a0d0e21e | 1232 | Note that inclusion of library modules is better done with the |
19799a22 | 1233 | C<use> and C<require> operators, which also do automatic error checking |
4633a7c4 | 1234 | and raise an exception if there's a problem. |
a0d0e21e | 1235 | |
5a964f20 TC |
1236 | You might like to use C<do> to read in a program configuration |
1237 | file. Manual error checking can be done this way: | |
1238 | ||
b76cc8ba | 1239 | # read in config files: system first, then user |
f86cebdf | 1240 | for $file ("/share/prog/defaults.rc", |
b76cc8ba | 1241 | "$ENV{HOME}/.someprogrc") |
2b5ab1e7 | 1242 | { |
5a964f20 | 1243 | unless ($return = do $file) { |
f86cebdf GS |
1244 | warn "couldn't parse $file: $@" if $@; |
1245 | warn "couldn't do $file: $!" unless defined $return; | |
1246 | warn "couldn't run $file" unless $return; | |
5a964f20 TC |
1247 | } |
1248 | } | |
1249 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
1250 | =item dump LABEL |
1251 | ||
1614b0e3 JD |
1252 | =item dump |
1253 | ||
19799a22 GS |
1254 | This function causes an immediate core dump. See also the B<-u> |
1255 | command-line switch in L<perlrun>, which does the same thing. | |
1256 | Primarily this is so that you can use the B<undump> program (not | |
1257 | supplied) to turn your core dump into an executable binary after | |
1258 | having initialized all your variables at the beginning of the | |
1259 | program. When the new binary is executed it will begin by executing | |
1260 | a C<goto LABEL> (with all the restrictions that C<goto> suffers). | |
1261 | Think of it as a goto with an intervening core dump and reincarnation. | |
1262 | If C<LABEL> is omitted, restarts the program from the top. | |
1263 | ||
1264 | B<WARNING>: Any files opened at the time of the dump will I<not> | |
1265 | be open any more when the program is reincarnated, with possible | |
b76cc8ba | 1266 | resulting confusion on the part of Perl. |
19799a22 GS |
1267 | |
1268 | This function is now largely obsolete, partly because it's very | |
1269 | hard to convert a core file into an executable, and because the | |
1270 | real compiler backends for generating portable bytecode and compilable | |
ac206dc8 RGS |
1271 | C code have superseded it. That's why you should now invoke it as |
1272 | C<CORE::dump()>, if you don't want to be warned against a possible | |
1273 | typo. | |
19799a22 GS |
1274 | |
1275 | If you're looking to use L<dump> to speed up your program, consider | |
1276 | generating bytecode or native C code as described in L<perlcc>. If | |
1277 | you're just trying to accelerate a CGI script, consider using the | |
210b36aa | 1278 | C<mod_perl> extension to B<Apache>, or the CPAN module, CGI::Fast. |
19799a22 | 1279 | You might also consider autoloading or selfloading, which at least |
b76cc8ba | 1280 | make your program I<appear> to run faster. |
5a964f20 | 1281 | |
aa689395 | 1282 | =item each HASH |
1283 | ||
5a964f20 | 1284 | When called in list context, returns a 2-element list consisting of the |
aa689395 | 1285 | key and value for the next element of a hash, so that you can iterate over |
74fc8b5f | 1286 | it. When called in scalar context, returns only the key for the next |
e902a979 | 1287 | element in the hash. |
2f9daede | 1288 | |
ab192400 | 1289 | Entries are returned in an apparently random order. The actual random |
504f80c1 JH |
1290 | order is subject to change in future versions of perl, but it is |
1291 | guaranteed to be in the same order as either the C<keys> or C<values> | |
4546b9e6 JH |
1292 | function would produce on the same (unmodified) hash. Since Perl |
1293 | 5.8.1 the ordering is different even between different runs of Perl | |
1294 | for security reasons (see L<perlsec/"Algorithmic Complexity Attacks">). | |
ab192400 GS |
1295 | |
1296 | When the hash is entirely read, a null array is returned in list context | |
19799a22 GS |
1297 | (which when assigned produces a false (C<0>) value), and C<undef> in |
1298 | scalar context. The next call to C<each> after that will start iterating | |
1299 | again. There is a single iterator for each hash, shared by all C<each>, | |
1300 | C<keys>, and C<values> function calls in the program; it can be reset by | |
2f9daede TP |
1301 | reading all the elements from the hash, or by evaluating C<keys HASH> or |
1302 | C<values HASH>. If you add or delete elements of a hash while you're | |
74fc8b5f MJD |
1303 | iterating over it, you may get entries skipped or duplicated, so |
1304 | don't. Exception: It is always safe to delete the item most recently | |
1305 | returned by C<each()>, which means that the following code will work: | |
1306 | ||
1307 | while (($key, $value) = each %hash) { | |
1308 | print $key, "\n"; | |
1309 | delete $hash{$key}; # This is safe | |
1310 | } | |
aa689395 | 1311 | |
f86cebdf | 1312 | The following prints out your environment like the printenv(1) program, |
aa689395 | 1313 | only in a different order: |
a0d0e21e LW |
1314 | |
1315 | while (($key,$value) = each %ENV) { | |
1316 | print "$key=$value\n"; | |
1317 | } | |
1318 | ||
19799a22 | 1319 | See also C<keys>, C<values> and C<sort>. |
a0d0e21e LW |
1320 | |
1321 | =item eof FILEHANDLE | |
1322 | ||
4633a7c4 LW |
1323 | =item eof () |
1324 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
1325 | =item eof |
1326 | ||
1327 | Returns 1 if the next read on FILEHANDLE will return end of file, or if | |
1328 | FILEHANDLE is not open. FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value | |
5a964f20 | 1329 | gives the real filehandle. (Note that this function actually |
19799a22 | 1330 | reads a character and then C<ungetc>s it, so isn't very useful in an |
748a9306 | 1331 | interactive context.) Do not read from a terminal file (or call |
19799a22 | 1332 | C<eof(FILEHANDLE)> on it) after end-of-file is reached. File types such |
748a9306 LW |
1333 | as terminals may lose the end-of-file condition if you do. |
1334 | ||
820475bd GS |
1335 | An C<eof> without an argument uses the last file read. Using C<eof()> |
1336 | with empty parentheses is very different. It refers to the pseudo file | |
1337 | formed from the files listed on the command line and accessed via the | |
61eff3bc JH |
1338 | C<< <> >> operator. Since C<< <> >> isn't explicitly opened, |
1339 | as a normal filehandle is, an C<eof()> before C<< <> >> has been | |
820475bd | 1340 | used will cause C<@ARGV> to be examined to determine if input is |
67408cae | 1341 | available. Similarly, an C<eof()> after C<< <> >> has returned |
efdd0218 RB |
1342 | end-of-file will assume you are processing another C<@ARGV> list, |
1343 | and if you haven't set C<@ARGV>, will read input from C<STDIN>; | |
1344 | see L<perlop/"I/O Operators">. | |
820475bd | 1345 | |
61eff3bc | 1346 | In a C<< while (<>) >> loop, C<eof> or C<eof(ARGV)> can be used to |
820475bd GS |
1347 | detect the end of each file, C<eof()> will only detect the end of the |
1348 | last file. Examples: | |
a0d0e21e | 1349 | |
748a9306 LW |
1350 | # reset line numbering on each input file |
1351 | while (<>) { | |
b76cc8ba | 1352 | next if /^\s*#/; # skip comments |
748a9306 | 1353 | print "$.\t$_"; |
5a964f20 TC |
1354 | } continue { |
1355 | close ARGV if eof; # Not eof()! | |
748a9306 LW |
1356 | } |
1357 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
1358 | # insert dashes just before last line of last file |
1359 | while (<>) { | |
6ac88b13 | 1360 | if (eof()) { # check for end of last file |
a0d0e21e LW |
1361 | print "--------------\n"; |
1362 | } | |
1363 | print; | |
6ac88b13 | 1364 | last if eof(); # needed if we're reading from a terminal |
a0d0e21e LW |
1365 | } |
1366 | ||
a0d0e21e | 1367 | Practical hint: you almost never need to use C<eof> in Perl, because the |
3ce0d271 GS |
1368 | input operators typically return C<undef> when they run out of data, or if |
1369 | there was an error. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1370 | |
1371 | =item eval EXPR | |
1372 | ||
1373 | =item eval BLOCK | |
1374 | ||
c7cc6f1c GS |
1375 | In the first form, the return value of EXPR is parsed and executed as if it |
1376 | were a little Perl program. The value of the expression (which is itself | |
5a964f20 | 1377 | determined within scalar context) is first parsed, and if there weren't any |
be3174d2 GS |
1378 | errors, executed in the lexical context of the current Perl program, so |
1379 | that any variable settings or subroutine and format definitions remain | |
1380 | afterwards. Note that the value is parsed every time the eval executes. | |
1381 | If EXPR is omitted, evaluates C<$_>. This form is typically used to | |
1382 | delay parsing and subsequent execution of the text of EXPR until run time. | |
c7cc6f1c GS |
1383 | |
1384 | In the second form, the code within the BLOCK is parsed only once--at the | |
1385 | same time the code surrounding the eval itself was parsed--and executed | |
1386 | within the context of the current Perl program. This form is typically | |
1387 | used to trap exceptions more efficiently than the first (see below), while | |
1388 | also providing the benefit of checking the code within BLOCK at compile | |
1389 | time. | |
1390 | ||
1391 | The final semicolon, if any, may be omitted from the value of EXPR or within | |
1392 | the BLOCK. | |
1393 | ||
1394 | In both forms, the value returned is the value of the last expression | |
5a964f20 | 1395 | evaluated inside the mini-program; a return statement may be also used, just |
c7cc6f1c | 1396 | as with subroutines. The expression providing the return value is evaluated |
5a964f20 | 1397 | in void, scalar, or list context, depending on the context of the eval itself. |
c7cc6f1c | 1398 | See L</wantarray> for more on how the evaluation context can be determined. |
a0d0e21e | 1399 | |
19799a22 GS |
1400 | If there is a syntax error or runtime error, or a C<die> statement is |
1401 | executed, an undefined value is returned by C<eval>, and C<$@> is set to the | |
a0d0e21e | 1402 | error message. If there was no error, C<$@> is guaranteed to be a null |
19799a22 | 1403 | string. Beware that using C<eval> neither silences perl from printing |
c7cc6f1c | 1404 | warnings to STDERR, nor does it stuff the text of warning messages into C<$@>. |
d9984052 A |
1405 | To do either of those, you have to use the C<$SIG{__WARN__}> facility, or |
1406 | turn off warnings inside the BLOCK or EXPR using S<C<no warnings 'all'>>. | |
1407 | See L</warn>, L<perlvar>, L<warnings> and L<perllexwarn>. | |
a0d0e21e | 1408 | |
19799a22 GS |
1409 | Note that, because C<eval> traps otherwise-fatal errors, it is useful for |
1410 | determining whether a particular feature (such as C<socket> or C<symlink>) | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1411 | is implemented. It is also Perl's exception trapping mechanism, where |
1412 | the die operator is used to raise exceptions. | |
1413 | ||
1414 | If the code to be executed doesn't vary, you may use the eval-BLOCK | |
1415 | form to trap run-time errors without incurring the penalty of | |
1416 | recompiling each time. The error, if any, is still returned in C<$@>. | |
1417 | Examples: | |
1418 | ||
54310121 | 1419 | # make divide-by-zero nonfatal |
a0d0e21e LW |
1420 | eval { $answer = $a / $b; }; warn $@ if $@; |
1421 | ||
1422 | # same thing, but less efficient | |
1423 | eval '$answer = $a / $b'; warn $@ if $@; | |
1424 | ||
1425 | # a compile-time error | |
5a964f20 | 1426 | eval { $answer = }; # WRONG |
a0d0e21e LW |
1427 | |
1428 | # a run-time error | |
1429 | eval '$answer ='; # sets $@ | |
1430 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1431 | Due to the current arguably broken state of C<__DIE__> hooks, when using |
1432 | the C<eval{}> form as an exception trap in libraries, you may wish not | |
1433 | to trigger any C<__DIE__> hooks that user code may have installed. | |
1434 | You can use the C<local $SIG{__DIE__}> construct for this purpose, | |
1435 | as shown in this example: | |
774d564b | 1436 | |
1437 | # a very private exception trap for divide-by-zero | |
f86cebdf GS |
1438 | eval { local $SIG{'__DIE__'}; $answer = $a / $b; }; |
1439 | warn $@ if $@; | |
774d564b | 1440 | |
1441 | This is especially significant, given that C<__DIE__> hooks can call | |
19799a22 | 1442 | C<die> again, which has the effect of changing their error messages: |
774d564b | 1443 | |
1444 | # __DIE__ hooks may modify error messages | |
1445 | { | |
f86cebdf GS |
1446 | local $SIG{'__DIE__'} = |
1447 | sub { (my $x = $_[0]) =~ s/foo/bar/g; die $x }; | |
c7cc6f1c GS |
1448 | eval { die "foo lives here" }; |
1449 | print $@ if $@; # prints "bar lives here" | |
774d564b | 1450 | } |
1451 | ||
19799a22 | 1452 | Because this promotes action at a distance, this counterintuitive behavior |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1453 | may be fixed in a future release. |
1454 | ||
19799a22 | 1455 | With an C<eval>, you should be especially careful to remember what's |
a0d0e21e LW |
1456 | being looked at when: |
1457 | ||
1458 | eval $x; # CASE 1 | |
1459 | eval "$x"; # CASE 2 | |
1460 | ||
1461 | eval '$x'; # CASE 3 | |
1462 | eval { $x }; # CASE 4 | |
1463 | ||
5a964f20 | 1464 | eval "\$$x++"; # CASE 5 |
a0d0e21e LW |
1465 | $$x++; # CASE 6 |
1466 | ||
2f9daede | 1467 | Cases 1 and 2 above behave identically: they run the code contained in |
19799a22 | 1468 | the variable $x. (Although case 2 has misleading double quotes making |
2f9daede | 1469 | the reader wonder what else might be happening (nothing is).) Cases 3 |
7660c0ab | 1470 | and 4 likewise behave in the same way: they run the code C<'$x'>, which |
19799a22 | 1471 | does nothing but return the value of $x. (Case 4 is preferred for |
2f9daede TP |
1472 | purely visual reasons, but it also has the advantage of compiling at |
1473 | compile-time instead of at run-time.) Case 5 is a place where | |
19799a22 | 1474 | normally you I<would> like to use double quotes, except that in this |
2f9daede TP |
1475 | particular situation, you can just use symbolic references instead, as |
1476 | in case 6. | |
a0d0e21e | 1477 | |
4968c1e4 | 1478 | C<eval BLOCK> does I<not> count as a loop, so the loop control statements |
2b5ab1e7 | 1479 | C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> cannot be used to leave or restart the block. |
4968c1e4 | 1480 | |
d819b83a DM |
1481 | Note that as a very special case, an C<eval ''> executed within the C<DB> |
1482 | package doesn't see the usual surrounding lexical scope, but rather the | |
1483 | scope of the first non-DB piece of code that called it. You don't normally | |
1484 | need to worry about this unless you are writing a Perl debugger. | |
1485 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
1486 | =item exec LIST |
1487 | ||
8bf3b016 GS |
1488 | =item exec PROGRAM LIST |
1489 | ||
19799a22 GS |
1490 | The C<exec> function executes a system command I<and never returns>-- |
1491 | use C<system> instead of C<exec> if you want it to return. It fails and | |
1492 | returns false only if the command does not exist I<and> it is executed | |
fb73857a | 1493 | directly instead of via your system's command shell (see below). |
a0d0e21e | 1494 | |
19799a22 GS |
1495 | Since it's a common mistake to use C<exec> instead of C<system>, Perl |
1496 | warns you if there is a following statement which isn't C<die>, C<warn>, | |
1497 | or C<exit> (if C<-w> is set - but you always do that). If you | |
1498 | I<really> want to follow an C<exec> with some other statement, you | |
55d729e4 GS |
1499 | can use one of these styles to avoid the warning: |
1500 | ||
5a964f20 TC |
1501 | exec ('foo') or print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!"; |
1502 | { exec ('foo') }; print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!"; | |
55d729e4 | 1503 | |
5a964f20 | 1504 | If there is more than one argument in LIST, or if LIST is an array |
f86cebdf | 1505 | with more than one value, calls execvp(3) with the arguments in LIST. |
5a964f20 TC |
1506 | If there is only one scalar argument or an array with one element in it, |
1507 | the argument is checked for shell metacharacters, and if there are any, | |
1508 | the entire argument is passed to the system's command shell for parsing | |
1509 | (this is C</bin/sh -c> on Unix platforms, but varies on other platforms). | |
1510 | If there are no shell metacharacters in the argument, it is split into | |
b76cc8ba | 1511 | words and passed directly to C<execvp>, which is more efficient. |
19799a22 | 1512 | Examples: |
a0d0e21e | 1513 | |
19799a22 GS |
1514 | exec '/bin/echo', 'Your arguments are: ', @ARGV; |
1515 | exec "sort $outfile | uniq"; | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1516 | |
1517 | If you don't really want to execute the first argument, but want to lie | |
1518 | to the program you are executing about its own name, you can specify | |
1519 | the program you actually want to run as an "indirect object" (without a | |
1520 | comma) in front of the LIST. (This always forces interpretation of the | |
54310121 | 1521 | LIST as a multivalued list, even if there is only a single scalar in |
a0d0e21e LW |
1522 | the list.) Example: |
1523 | ||
1524 | $shell = '/bin/csh'; | |
1525 | exec $shell '-sh'; # pretend it's a login shell | |
1526 | ||
1527 | or, more directly, | |
1528 | ||
1529 | exec {'/bin/csh'} '-sh'; # pretend it's a login shell | |
1530 | ||
bb32b41a GS |
1531 | When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results will |
1532 | be subject to its quirks and capabilities. See L<perlop/"`STRING`"> | |
1533 | for details. | |
1534 | ||
19799a22 GS |
1535 | Using an indirect object with C<exec> or C<system> is also more |
1536 | secure. This usage (which also works fine with system()) forces | |
1537 | interpretation of the arguments as a multivalued list, even if the | |
1538 | list had just one argument. That way you're safe from the shell | |
1539 | expanding wildcards or splitting up words with whitespace in them. | |
5a964f20 TC |
1540 | |
1541 | @args = ( "echo surprise" ); | |
1542 | ||
2b5ab1e7 | 1543 | exec @args; # subject to shell escapes |
f86cebdf | 1544 | # if @args == 1 |
2b5ab1e7 | 1545 | exec { $args[0] } @args; # safe even with one-arg list |
5a964f20 TC |
1546 | |
1547 | The first version, the one without the indirect object, ran the I<echo> | |
1548 | program, passing it C<"surprise"> an argument. The second version | |
1549 | didn't--it tried to run a program literally called I<"echo surprise">, | |
1550 | didn't find it, and set C<$?> to a non-zero value indicating failure. | |
1551 | ||
0f897271 GS |
1552 | Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for |
1553 | output before the exec, but this may not be supported on some platforms | |
1554 | (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH | |
1555 | in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method of C<IO::Handle> on any | |
1556 | open handles in order to avoid lost output. | |
1557 | ||
19799a22 | 1558 | Note that C<exec> will not call your C<END> blocks, nor will it call |
7660c0ab A |
1559 | any C<DESTROY> methods in your objects. |
1560 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
1561 | =item exists EXPR |
1562 | ||
01020589 | 1563 | Given an expression that specifies a hash element or array element, |
8ea97a1e GS |
1564 | returns true if the specified element in the hash or array has ever |
1565 | been initialized, even if the corresponding value is undefined. The | |
1566 | element is not autovivified if it doesn't exist. | |
a0d0e21e | 1567 | |
01020589 GS |
1568 | print "Exists\n" if exists $hash{$key}; |
1569 | print "Defined\n" if defined $hash{$key}; | |
1570 | print "True\n" if $hash{$key}; | |
1571 | ||
1572 | print "Exists\n" if exists $array[$index]; | |
1573 | print "Defined\n" if defined $array[$index]; | |
1574 | print "True\n" if $array[$index]; | |
a0d0e21e | 1575 | |
8ea97a1e | 1576 | A hash or array element can be true only if it's defined, and defined if |
a0d0e21e LW |
1577 | it exists, but the reverse doesn't necessarily hold true. |
1578 | ||
afebc493 GS |
1579 | Given an expression that specifies the name of a subroutine, |
1580 | returns true if the specified subroutine has ever been declared, even | |
1581 | if it is undefined. Mentioning a subroutine name for exists or defined | |
847c7ebe DD |
1582 | does not count as declaring it. Note that a subroutine which does not |
1583 | exist may still be callable: its package may have an C<AUTOLOAD> | |
1584 | method that makes it spring into existence the first time that it is | |
1585 | called -- see L<perlsub>. | |
afebc493 GS |
1586 | |
1587 | print "Exists\n" if exists &subroutine; | |
1588 | print "Defined\n" if defined &subroutine; | |
1589 | ||
a0d0e21e | 1590 | Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the final |
afebc493 | 1591 | operation is a hash or array key lookup or subroutine name: |
a0d0e21e | 1592 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1593 | if (exists $ref->{A}->{B}->{$key}) { } |
1594 | if (exists $hash{A}{B}{$key}) { } | |
1595 | ||
01020589 GS |
1596 | if (exists $ref->{A}->{B}->[$ix]) { } |
1597 | if (exists $hash{A}{B}[$ix]) { } | |
1598 | ||
afebc493 GS |
1599 | if (exists &{$ref->{A}{B}{$key}}) { } |
1600 | ||
01020589 GS |
1601 | Although the deepest nested array or hash will not spring into existence |
1602 | just because its existence was tested, any intervening ones will. | |
61eff3bc | 1603 | Thus C<< $ref->{"A"} >> and C<< $ref->{"A"}->{"B"} >> will spring |
01020589 GS |
1604 | into existence due to the existence test for the $key element above. |
1605 | This happens anywhere the arrow operator is used, including even: | |
5a964f20 | 1606 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1607 | undef $ref; |
1608 | if (exists $ref->{"Some key"}) { } | |
1609 | print $ref; # prints HASH(0x80d3d5c) | |
1610 | ||
1611 | This surprising autovivification in what does not at first--or even | |
1612 | second--glance appear to be an lvalue context may be fixed in a future | |
5a964f20 | 1613 | release. |
a0d0e21e | 1614 | |
afebc493 GS |
1615 | Use of a subroutine call, rather than a subroutine name, as an argument |
1616 | to exists() is an error. | |
1617 | ||
1618 | exists ⊂ # OK | |
1619 | exists &sub(); # Error | |
1620 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
1621 | =item exit EXPR |
1622 | ||
2b5ab1e7 | 1623 | Evaluates EXPR and exits immediately with that value. Example: |
a0d0e21e LW |
1624 | |
1625 | $ans = <STDIN>; | |
1626 | exit 0 if $ans =~ /^[Xx]/; | |
1627 | ||
19799a22 | 1628 | See also C<die>. If EXPR is omitted, exits with C<0> status. The only |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1629 | universally recognized values for EXPR are C<0> for success and C<1> |
1630 | for error; other values are subject to interpretation depending on the | |
1631 | environment in which the Perl program is running. For example, exiting | |
1632 | 69 (EX_UNAVAILABLE) from a I<sendmail> incoming-mail filter will cause | |
1633 | the mailer to return the item undelivered, but that's not true everywhere. | |
a0d0e21e | 1634 | |
19799a22 GS |
1635 | Don't use C<exit> to abort a subroutine if there's any chance that |
1636 | someone might want to trap whatever error happened. Use C<die> instead, | |
1637 | which can be trapped by an C<eval>. | |
28757baa | 1638 | |
19799a22 | 1639 | The exit() function does not always exit immediately. It calls any |
2b5ab1e7 | 1640 | defined C<END> routines first, but these C<END> routines may not |
19799a22 | 1641 | themselves abort the exit. Likewise any object destructors that need to |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1642 | be called are called before the real exit. If this is a problem, you |
1643 | can call C<POSIX:_exit($status)> to avoid END and destructor processing. | |
87275199 | 1644 | See L<perlmod> for details. |
5a964f20 | 1645 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1646 | =item exp EXPR |
1647 | ||
54310121 | 1648 | =item exp |
bbce6d69 | 1649 | |
b76cc8ba | 1650 | Returns I<e> (the natural logarithm base) to the power of EXPR. |
a0d0e21e LW |
1651 | If EXPR is omitted, gives C<exp($_)>. |
1652 | ||
1653 | =item fcntl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR | |
1654 | ||
f86cebdf | 1655 | Implements the fcntl(2) function. You'll probably have to say |
a0d0e21e LW |
1656 | |
1657 | use Fcntl; | |
1658 | ||
0ade1984 | 1659 | first to get the correct constant definitions. Argument processing and |
b76cc8ba | 1660 | value return works just like C<ioctl> below. |
a0d0e21e LW |
1661 | For example: |
1662 | ||
1663 | use Fcntl; | |
5a964f20 TC |
1664 | fcntl($filehandle, F_GETFL, $packed_return_buffer) |
1665 | or die "can't fcntl F_GETFL: $!"; | |
1666 | ||
554ad1fc | 1667 | You don't have to check for C<defined> on the return from C<fcntl>. |
951ba7fe GS |
1668 | Like C<ioctl>, it maps a C<0> return from the system call into |
1669 | C<"0 but true"> in Perl. This string is true in boolean context and C<0> | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1670 | in numeric context. It is also exempt from the normal B<-w> warnings |
1671 | on improper numeric conversions. | |
5a964f20 | 1672 | |
19799a22 | 1673 | Note that C<fcntl> will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1674 | doesn't implement fcntl(2). See the Fcntl module or your fcntl(2) |
1675 | manpage to learn what functions are available on your system. | |
a0d0e21e | 1676 | |
be2f7487 TH |
1677 | Here's an example of setting a filehandle named C<REMOTE> to be |
1678 | non-blocking at the system level. You'll have to negotiate C<$|> | |
1679 | on your own, though. | |
1680 | ||
1681 | use Fcntl qw(F_GETFL F_SETFL O_NONBLOCK); | |
1682 | ||
1683 | $flags = fcntl(REMOTE, F_GETFL, 0) | |
1684 | or die "Can't get flags for the socket: $!\n"; | |
1685 | ||
1686 | $flags = fcntl(REMOTE, F_SETFL, $flags | O_NONBLOCK) | |
1687 | or die "Can't set flags for the socket: $!\n"; | |
1688 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
1689 | =item fileno FILEHANDLE |
1690 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1691 | Returns the file descriptor for a filehandle, or undefined if the |
1692 | filehandle is not open. This is mainly useful for constructing | |
19799a22 | 1693 | bitmaps for C<select> and low-level POSIX tty-handling operations. |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1694 | If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value is taken as an indirect |
1695 | filehandle, generally its name. | |
5a964f20 | 1696 | |
b76cc8ba | 1697 | You can use this to find out whether two handles refer to the |
5a964f20 TC |
1698 | same underlying descriptor: |
1699 | ||
1700 | if (fileno(THIS) == fileno(THAT)) { | |
1701 | print "THIS and THAT are dups\n"; | |
b76cc8ba NIS |
1702 | } |
1703 | ||
1704 | (Filehandles connected to memory objects via new features of C<open> may | |
1705 | return undefined even though they are open.) | |
1706 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
1707 | |
1708 | =item flock FILEHANDLE,OPERATION | |
1709 | ||
19799a22 GS |
1710 | Calls flock(2), or an emulation of it, on FILEHANDLE. Returns true |
1711 | for success, false on failure. Produces a fatal error if used on a | |
2b5ab1e7 | 1712 | machine that doesn't implement flock(2), fcntl(2) locking, or lockf(3). |
19799a22 | 1713 | C<flock> is Perl's portable file locking interface, although it locks |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1714 | only entire files, not records. |
1715 | ||
1716 | Two potentially non-obvious but traditional C<flock> semantics are | |
1717 | that it waits indefinitely until the lock is granted, and that its locks | |
1718 | B<merely advisory>. Such discretionary locks are more flexible, but offer | |
19799a22 GS |
1719 | fewer guarantees. This means that files locked with C<flock> may be |
1720 | modified by programs that do not also use C<flock>. See L<perlport>, | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1721 | your port's specific documentation, or your system-specific local manpages |
1722 | for details. It's best to assume traditional behavior if you're writing | |
1723 | portable programs. (But if you're not, you should as always feel perfectly | |
1724 | free to write for your own system's idiosyncrasies (sometimes called | |
1725 | "features"). Slavish adherence to portability concerns shouldn't get | |
1726 | in the way of your getting your job done.) | |
a3cb178b | 1727 | |
8ebc5c01 | 1728 | OPERATION is one of LOCK_SH, LOCK_EX, or LOCK_UN, possibly combined with |
1729 | LOCK_NB. These constants are traditionally valued 1, 2, 8 and 4, but | |
ea3105be | 1730 | you can use the symbolic names if you import them from the Fcntl module, |
68dc0745 | 1731 | either individually, or as a group using the ':flock' tag. LOCK_SH |
1732 | requests a shared lock, LOCK_EX requests an exclusive lock, and LOCK_UN | |
ea3105be GS |
1733 | releases a previously requested lock. If LOCK_NB is bitwise-or'ed with |
1734 | LOCK_SH or LOCK_EX then C<flock> will return immediately rather than blocking | |
68dc0745 | 1735 | waiting for the lock (check the return status to see if you got it). |
1736 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1737 | To avoid the possibility of miscoordination, Perl now flushes FILEHANDLE |
1738 | before locking or unlocking it. | |
8ebc5c01 | 1739 | |
f86cebdf | 1740 | Note that the emulation built with lockf(3) doesn't provide shared |
8ebc5c01 | 1741 | locks, and it requires that FILEHANDLE be open with write intent. These |
2b5ab1e7 | 1742 | are the semantics that lockf(3) implements. Most if not all systems |
f86cebdf | 1743 | implement lockf(3) in terms of fcntl(2) locking, though, so the |
8ebc5c01 | 1744 | differing semantics shouldn't bite too many people. |
1745 | ||
becacb53 TM |
1746 | Note that the fcntl(2) emulation of flock(3) requires that FILEHANDLE |
1747 | be open with read intent to use LOCK_SH and requires that it be open | |
1748 | with write intent to use LOCK_EX. | |
1749 | ||
19799a22 GS |
1750 | Note also that some versions of C<flock> cannot lock things over the |
1751 | network; you would need to use the more system-specific C<fcntl> for | |
f86cebdf GS |
1752 | that. If you like you can force Perl to ignore your system's flock(2) |
1753 | function, and so provide its own fcntl(2)-based emulation, by passing | |
8ebc5c01 | 1754 | the switch C<-Ud_flock> to the F<Configure> program when you configure |
1755 | perl. | |
4633a7c4 LW |
1756 | |
1757 | Here's a mailbox appender for BSD systems. | |
a0d0e21e | 1758 | |
7e1af8bc | 1759 | use Fcntl ':flock'; # import LOCK_* constants |
a0d0e21e LW |
1760 | |
1761 | sub lock { | |
7e1af8bc | 1762 | flock(MBOX,LOCK_EX); |
a0d0e21e LW |
1763 | # and, in case someone appended |
1764 | # while we were waiting... | |
1765 | seek(MBOX, 0, 2); | |
1766 | } | |
1767 | ||
1768 | sub unlock { | |
7e1af8bc | 1769 | flock(MBOX,LOCK_UN); |
a0d0e21e LW |
1770 | } |
1771 | ||
1772 | open(MBOX, ">>/usr/spool/mail/$ENV{'USER'}") | |
1773 | or die "Can't open mailbox: $!"; | |
1774 | ||
1775 | lock(); | |
1776 | print MBOX $msg,"\n\n"; | |
1777 | unlock(); | |
1778 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1779 | On systems that support a real flock(), locks are inherited across fork() |
1780 | calls, whereas those that must resort to the more capricious fcntl() | |
1781 | function lose the locks, making it harder to write servers. | |
1782 | ||
cb1a09d0 | 1783 | See also L<DB_File> for other flock() examples. |
a0d0e21e LW |
1784 | |
1785 | =item fork | |
1786 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1787 | Does a fork(2) system call to create a new process running the |
1788 | same program at the same point. It returns the child pid to the | |
1789 | parent process, C<0> to the child process, or C<undef> if the fork is | |
1790 | unsuccessful. File descriptors (and sometimes locks on those descriptors) | |
1791 | are shared, while everything else is copied. On most systems supporting | |
1792 | fork(), great care has gone into making it extremely efficient (for | |
1793 | example, using copy-on-write technology on data pages), making it the | |
1794 | dominant paradigm for multitasking over the last few decades. | |
5a964f20 | 1795 | |
0f897271 GS |
1796 | Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for |
1797 | output before forking the child process, but this may not be supported | |
1798 | on some platforms (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need to set | |
1799 | C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method of | |
1800 | C<IO::Handle> on any open handles in order to avoid duplicate output. | |
a0d0e21e | 1801 | |
19799a22 | 1802 | If you C<fork> without ever waiting on your children, you will |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1803 | accumulate zombies. On some systems, you can avoid this by setting |
1804 | C<$SIG{CHLD}> to C<"IGNORE">. See also L<perlipc> for more examples of | |
1805 | forking and reaping moribund children. | |
cb1a09d0 | 1806 | |
28757baa | 1807 | Note that if your forked child inherits system file descriptors like |
1808 | STDIN and STDOUT that are actually connected by a pipe or socket, even | |
2b5ab1e7 | 1809 | if you exit, then the remote server (such as, say, a CGI script or a |
19799a22 | 1810 | backgrounded job launched from a remote shell) won't think you're done. |
2b5ab1e7 | 1811 | You should reopen those to F</dev/null> if it's any issue. |
28757baa | 1812 | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
1813 | =item format |
1814 | ||
19799a22 | 1815 | Declare a picture format for use by the C<write> function. For |
cb1a09d0 AD |
1816 | example: |
1817 | ||
54310121 | 1818 | format Something = |
cb1a09d0 AD |
1819 | Test: @<<<<<<<< @||||| @>>>>> |
1820 | $str, $%, '$' . int($num) | |
1821 | . | |
1822 | ||
1823 | $str = "widget"; | |
184e9718 | 1824 | $num = $cost/$quantity; |
cb1a09d0 AD |
1825 | $~ = 'Something'; |
1826 | write; | |
1827 | ||
1828 | See L<perlform> for many details and examples. | |
1829 | ||
8903cb82 | 1830 | =item formline PICTURE,LIST |
a0d0e21e | 1831 | |
5a964f20 | 1832 | This is an internal function used by C<format>s, though you may call it, |
a0d0e21e LW |
1833 | too. It formats (see L<perlform>) a list of values according to the |
1834 | contents of PICTURE, placing the output into the format output | |
7660c0ab | 1835 | accumulator, C<$^A> (or C<$ACCUMULATOR> in English). |
19799a22 | 1836 | Eventually, when a C<write> is done, the contents of |
a0d0e21e | 1837 | C<$^A> are written to some filehandle, but you could also read C<$^A> |
7660c0ab | 1838 | yourself and then set C<$^A> back to C<"">. Note that a format typically |
19799a22 | 1839 | does one C<formline> per line of form, but the C<formline> function itself |
748a9306 | 1840 | doesn't care how many newlines are embedded in the PICTURE. This means |
4633a7c4 | 1841 | that the C<~> and C<~~> tokens will treat the entire PICTURE as a single line. |
748a9306 LW |
1842 | You may therefore need to use multiple formlines to implement a single |
1843 | record format, just like the format compiler. | |
1844 | ||
19799a22 | 1845 | Be careful if you put double quotes around the picture, because an C<@> |
748a9306 | 1846 | character may be taken to mean the beginning of an array name. |
19799a22 | 1847 | C<formline> always returns true. See L<perlform> for other examples. |
a0d0e21e LW |
1848 | |
1849 | =item getc FILEHANDLE | |
1850 | ||
1851 | =item getc | |
1852 | ||
1853 | Returns the next character from the input file attached to FILEHANDLE, | |
b5fe5ca2 SR |
1854 | or the undefined value at end of file, or if there was an error (in |
1855 | the latter case C<$!> is set). If FILEHANDLE is omitted, reads from | |
1856 | STDIN. This is not particularly efficient. However, it cannot be | |
1857 | used by itself to fetch single characters without waiting for the user | |
1858 | to hit enter. For that, try something more like: | |
4633a7c4 LW |
1859 | |
1860 | if ($BSD_STYLE) { | |
1861 | system "stty cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1"; | |
1862 | } | |
1863 | else { | |
54310121 | 1864 | system "stty", '-icanon', 'eol', "\001"; |
4633a7c4 LW |
1865 | } |
1866 | ||
1867 | $key = getc(STDIN); | |
1868 | ||
1869 | if ($BSD_STYLE) { | |
1870 | system "stty -cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1"; | |
1871 | } | |
1872 | else { | |
5f05dabc | 1873 | system "stty", 'icanon', 'eol', '^@'; # ASCII null |
4633a7c4 LW |
1874 | } |
1875 | print "\n"; | |
1876 | ||
54310121 | 1877 | Determination of whether $BSD_STYLE should be set |
1878 | is left as an exercise to the reader. | |
cb1a09d0 | 1879 | |
19799a22 | 1880 | The C<POSIX::getattr> function can do this more portably on |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
1881 | systems purporting POSIX compliance. See also the C<Term::ReadKey> |
1882 | module from your nearest CPAN site; details on CPAN can be found on | |
1883 | L<perlmodlib/CPAN>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1884 | |
1885 | =item getlogin | |
1886 | ||
5a964f20 TC |
1887 | Implements the C library function of the same name, which on most |
1888 | systems returns the current login from F</etc/utmp>, if any. If null, | |
19799a22 | 1889 | use C<getpwuid>. |
a0d0e21e | 1890 | |
f86702cc | 1891 | $login = getlogin || getpwuid($<) || "Kilroy"; |
a0d0e21e | 1892 | |
19799a22 GS |
1893 | Do not consider C<getlogin> for authentication: it is not as |
1894 | secure as C<getpwuid>. | |
4633a7c4 | 1895 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1896 | =item getpeername SOCKET |
1897 | ||
1898 | Returns the packed sockaddr address of other end of the SOCKET connection. | |
1899 | ||
4633a7c4 LW |
1900 | use Socket; |
1901 | $hersockaddr = getpeername(SOCK); | |
19799a22 | 1902 | ($port, $iaddr) = sockaddr_in($hersockaddr); |
4633a7c4 LW |
1903 | $herhostname = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET); |
1904 | $herstraddr = inet_ntoa($iaddr); | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1905 | |
1906 | =item getpgrp PID | |
1907 | ||
47e29363 | 1908 | Returns the current process group for the specified PID. Use |
7660c0ab | 1909 | a PID of C<0> to get the current process group for the |
4633a7c4 | 1910 | current process. Will raise an exception if used on a machine that |
f86cebdf | 1911 | doesn't implement getpgrp(2). If PID is omitted, returns process |
19799a22 | 1912 | group of current process. Note that the POSIX version of C<getpgrp> |
7660c0ab | 1913 | does not accept a PID argument, so only C<PID==0> is truly portable. |
a0d0e21e LW |
1914 | |
1915 | =item getppid | |
1916 | ||
1917 | Returns the process id of the parent process. | |
1918 | ||
4d76a344 RGS |
1919 | Note for Linux users: on Linux, the C functions C<getpid()> and |
1920 | C<getppid()> return different values from different threads. In order to | |
1921 | be portable, this behavior is not reflected by the perl-level function | |
1922 | C<getppid()>, that returns a consistent value across threads. If you want | |
e3256f86 RGS |
1923 | to call the underlying C<getppid()>, you may use the CPAN module |
1924 | C<Linux::Pid>. | |
4d76a344 | 1925 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
1926 | =item getpriority WHICH,WHO |
1927 | ||
4633a7c4 LW |
1928 | Returns the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user. |
1929 | (See L<getpriority(2)>.) Will raise a fatal exception if used on a | |
f86cebdf | 1930 | machine that doesn't implement getpriority(2). |
a0d0e21e LW |
1931 | |
1932 | =item getpwnam NAME | |
1933 | ||
1934 | =item getgrnam NAME | |
1935 | ||
1936 | =item gethostbyname NAME | |
1937 | ||
1938 | =item getnetbyname NAME | |
1939 | ||
1940 | =item getprotobyname NAME | |
1941 | ||
1942 | =item getpwuid UID | |
1943 | ||
1944 | =item getgrgid GID | |
1945 | ||
1946 | =item getservbyname NAME,PROTO | |
1947 | ||
1948 | =item gethostbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE | |
1949 | ||
1950 | =item getnetbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE | |
1951 | ||
1952 | =item getprotobynumber NUMBER | |
1953 | ||
1954 | =item getservbyport PORT,PROTO | |
1955 | ||
1956 | =item getpwent | |
1957 | ||
1958 | =item getgrent | |
1959 | ||
1960 | =item gethostent | |
1961 | ||
1962 | =item getnetent | |
1963 | ||
1964 | =item getprotoent | |
1965 | ||
1966 | =item getservent | |
1967 | ||
1968 | =item setpwent | |
1969 | ||
1970 | =item setgrent | |
1971 | ||
1972 | =item sethostent STAYOPEN | |
1973 | ||
1974 | =item setnetent STAYOPEN | |
1975 | ||
1976 | =item setprotoent STAYOPEN | |
1977 | ||
1978 | =item setservent STAYOPEN | |
1979 | ||
1980 | =item endpwent | |
1981 | ||
1982 | =item endgrent | |
1983 | ||
1984 | =item endhostent | |
1985 | ||
1986 | =item endnetent | |
1987 | ||
1988 | =item endprotoent | |
1989 | ||
1990 | =item endservent | |
1991 | ||
1992 | These routines perform the same functions as their counterparts in the | |
5a964f20 | 1993 | system library. In list context, the return values from the |
a0d0e21e LW |
1994 | various get routines are as follows: |
1995 | ||
1996 | ($name,$passwd,$uid,$gid, | |
6ee623d5 | 1997 | $quota,$comment,$gcos,$dir,$shell,$expire) = getpw* |
a0d0e21e LW |
1998 | ($name,$passwd,$gid,$members) = getgr* |
1999 | ($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$length,@addrs) = gethost* | |
2000 | ($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$net) = getnet* | |
2001 | ($name,$aliases,$proto) = getproto* | |
2002 | ($name,$aliases,$port,$proto) = getserv* | |
2003 | ||
2004 | (If the entry doesn't exist you get a null list.) | |
2005 | ||
4602f195 JH |
2006 | The exact meaning of the $gcos field varies but it usually contains |
2007 | the real name of the user (as opposed to the login name) and other | |
2008 | information pertaining to the user. Beware, however, that in many | |
2009 | system users are able to change this information and therefore it | |
106325ad | 2010 | cannot be trusted and therefore the $gcos is tainted (see |
2959b6e3 JH |
2011 | L<perlsec>). The $passwd and $shell, user's encrypted password and |
2012 | login shell, are also tainted, because of the same reason. | |
4602f195 | 2013 | |
5a964f20 | 2014 | In scalar context, you get the name, unless the function was a |
a0d0e21e LW |
2015 | lookup by name, in which case you get the other thing, whatever it is. |
2016 | (If the entry doesn't exist you get the undefined value.) For example: | |
2017 | ||
5a964f20 TC |
2018 | $uid = getpwnam($name); |
2019 | $name = getpwuid($num); | |
2020 | $name = getpwent(); | |
2021 | $gid = getgrnam($name); | |
08a33e13 | 2022 | $name = getgrgid($num); |
5a964f20 TC |
2023 | $name = getgrent(); |
2024 | #etc. | |
a0d0e21e | 2025 | |
4602f195 JH |
2026 | In I<getpw*()> the fields $quota, $comment, and $expire are special |
2027 | cases in the sense that in many systems they are unsupported. If the | |
2028 | $quota is unsupported, it is an empty scalar. If it is supported, it | |
2029 | usually encodes the disk quota. If the $comment field is unsupported, | |
2030 | it is an empty scalar. If it is supported it usually encodes some | |
2031 | administrative comment about the user. In some systems the $quota | |
2032 | field may be $change or $age, fields that have to do with password | |
2033 | aging. In some systems the $comment field may be $class. The $expire | |
2034 | field, if present, encodes the expiration period of the account or the | |
2035 | password. For the availability and the exact meaning of these fields | |
2036 | in your system, please consult your getpwnam(3) documentation and your | |
2037 | F<pwd.h> file. You can also find out from within Perl what your | |
2038 | $quota and $comment fields mean and whether you have the $expire field | |
2039 | by using the C<Config> module and the values C<d_pwquota>, C<d_pwage>, | |
2040 | C<d_pwchange>, C<d_pwcomment>, and C<d_pwexpire>. Shadow password | |
2041 | files are only supported if your vendor has implemented them in the | |
2042 | intuitive fashion that calling the regular C library routines gets the | |
5d3a0a3b GS |
2043 | shadow versions if you're running under privilege or if there exists |
2044 | the shadow(3) functions as found in System V ( this includes Solaris | |
2045 | and Linux.) Those systems which implement a proprietary shadow password | |
2046 | facility are unlikely to be supported. | |
6ee623d5 | 2047 | |
19799a22 | 2048 | The $members value returned by I<getgr*()> is a space separated list of |
a0d0e21e LW |
2049 | the login names of the members of the group. |
2050 | ||
2051 | For the I<gethost*()> functions, if the C<h_errno> variable is supported in | |
2052 | C, it will be returned to you via C<$?> if the function call fails. The | |
7660c0ab | 2053 | C<@addrs> value returned by a successful call is a list of the raw |
a0d0e21e LW |
2054 | addresses returned by the corresponding system library call. In the |
2055 | Internet domain, each address is four bytes long and you can unpack it | |
2056 | by saying something like: | |
2057 | ||
2058 | ($a,$b,$c,$d) = unpack('C4',$addr[0]); | |
2059 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2060 | The Socket library makes this slightly easier: |
2061 | ||
2062 | use Socket; | |
2063 | $iaddr = inet_aton("127.1"); # or whatever address | |
2064 | $name = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET); | |
2065 | ||
2066 | # or going the other way | |
19799a22 | 2067 | $straddr = inet_ntoa($iaddr); |
2b5ab1e7 | 2068 | |
19799a22 GS |
2069 | If you get tired of remembering which element of the return list |
2070 | contains which return value, by-name interfaces are provided | |
2071 | in standard modules: C<File::stat>, C<Net::hostent>, C<Net::netent>, | |
2072 | C<Net::protoent>, C<Net::servent>, C<Time::gmtime>, C<Time::localtime>, | |
2073 | and C<User::grent>. These override the normal built-ins, supplying | |
2074 | versions that return objects with the appropriate names | |
2075 | for each field. For example: | |
5a964f20 TC |
2076 | |
2077 | use File::stat; | |
2078 | use User::pwent; | |
2079 | $is_his = (stat($filename)->uid == pwent($whoever)->uid); | |
2080 | ||
b76cc8ba NIS |
2081 | Even though it looks like they're the same method calls (uid), |
2082 | they aren't, because a C<File::stat> object is different from | |
19799a22 | 2083 | a C<User::pwent> object. |
5a964f20 | 2084 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2085 | =item getsockname SOCKET |
2086 | ||
19799a22 GS |
2087 | Returns the packed sockaddr address of this end of the SOCKET connection, |
2088 | in case you don't know the address because you have several different | |
2089 | IPs that the connection might have come in on. | |
a0d0e21e | 2090 | |
4633a7c4 LW |
2091 | use Socket; |
2092 | $mysockaddr = getsockname(SOCK); | |
19799a22 | 2093 | ($port, $myaddr) = sockaddr_in($mysockaddr); |
b76cc8ba | 2094 | printf "Connect to %s [%s]\n", |
19799a22 GS |
2095 | scalar gethostbyaddr($myaddr, AF_INET), |
2096 | inet_ntoa($myaddr); | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2097 | |
2098 | =item getsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME | |
2099 | ||
5a964f20 | 2100 | Returns the socket option requested, or undef if there is an error. |
a0d0e21e LW |
2101 | |
2102 | =item glob EXPR | |
2103 | ||
0a753a76 | 2104 | =item glob |
2105 | ||
d9a9d457 JL |
2106 | In list context, returns a (possibly empty) list of filename expansions on |
2107 | the value of EXPR such as the standard Unix shell F</bin/csh> would do. In | |
2108 | scalar context, glob iterates through such filename expansions, returning | |
2109 | undef when the list is exhausted. This is the internal function | |
2110 | implementing the C<< <*.c> >> operator, but you can use it directly. If | |
2111 | EXPR is omitted, C<$_> is used. The C<< <*.c> >> operator is discussed in | |
2112 | more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">. | |
a0d0e21e | 2113 | |
3a4b19e4 GS |
2114 | Beginning with v5.6.0, this operator is implemented using the standard |
2115 | C<File::Glob> extension. See L<File::Glob> for details. | |
2116 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
2117 | =item gmtime EXPR |
2118 | ||
d1be9408 | 2119 | Converts a time as returned by the time function to an 8-element list |
54310121 | 2120 | with the time localized for the standard Greenwich time zone. |
4633a7c4 | 2121 | Typically used as follows: |
a0d0e21e | 2122 | |
b76cc8ba | 2123 | # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 |
48a26b3a | 2124 | ($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday) = |
a0d0e21e LW |
2125 | gmtime(time); |
2126 | ||
48a26b3a GS |
2127 | All list elements are numeric, and come straight out of the C `struct |
2128 | tm'. $sec, $min, and $hour are the seconds, minutes, and hours of the | |
2129 | specified time. $mday is the day of the month, and $mon is the month | |
2130 | itself, in the range C<0..11> with 0 indicating January and 11 | |
2131 | indicating December. $year is the number of years since 1900. That | |
2132 | is, $year is C<123> in year 2023. $wday is the day of the week, with | |
2133 | 0 indicating Sunday and 3 indicating Wednesday. $yday is the day of | |
b76cc8ba | 2134 | the year, in the range C<0..364> (or C<0..365> in leap years.) |
48a26b3a GS |
2135 | |
2136 | Note that the $year element is I<not> simply the last two digits of | |
2137 | the year. If you assume it is, then you create non-Y2K-compliant | |
2138 | programs--and you wouldn't want to do that, would you? | |
2f9daede | 2139 | |
abd75f24 GS |
2140 | The proper way to get a complete 4-digit year is simply: |
2141 | ||
2142 | $year += 1900; | |
2143 | ||
2144 | And to get the last two digits of the year (e.g., '01' in 2001) do: | |
2145 | ||
2146 | $year = sprintf("%02d", $year % 100); | |
2147 | ||
48a26b3a | 2148 | If EXPR is omitted, C<gmtime()> uses the current time (C<gmtime(time)>). |
a0d0e21e | 2149 | |
48a26b3a | 2150 | In scalar context, C<gmtime()> returns the ctime(3) value: |
0a753a76 | 2151 | |
2152 | $now_string = gmtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994" | |
2153 | ||
19799a22 | 2154 | Also see the C<timegm> function provided by the C<Time::Local> module, |
f86cebdf | 2155 | and the strftime(3) function available via the POSIX module. |
7660c0ab | 2156 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2157 | This scalar value is B<not> locale dependent (see L<perllocale>), but |
2158 | is instead a Perl builtin. Also see the C<Time::Local> module, and the | |
2159 | strftime(3) and mktime(3) functions available via the POSIX module. To | |
7660c0ab A |
2160 | get somewhat similar but locale dependent date strings, set up your |
2161 | locale environment variables appropriately (please see L<perllocale>) | |
2162 | and try for example: | |
2163 | ||
2164 | use POSIX qw(strftime); | |
2b5ab1e7 | 2165 | $now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", gmtime; |
7660c0ab | 2166 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2167 | Note that the C<%a> and C<%b> escapes, which represent the short forms |
2168 | of the day of the week and the month of the year, may not necessarily | |
2169 | be three characters wide in all locales. | |
0a753a76 | 2170 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2171 | =item goto LABEL |
2172 | ||
748a9306 LW |
2173 | =item goto EXPR |
2174 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
2175 | =item goto &NAME |
2176 | ||
7660c0ab | 2177 | The C<goto-LABEL> form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes |
a0d0e21e | 2178 | execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that |
7660c0ab | 2179 | requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a C<foreach> loop. It |
0a753a76 | 2180 | also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away, |
19799a22 | 2181 | or to get out of a block or subroutine given to C<sort>. |
0a753a76 | 2182 | It can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope, |
a0d0e21e | 2183 | including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other |
19799a22 | 2184 | construct such as C<last> or C<die>. The author of Perl has never felt the |
7660c0ab | 2185 | need to use this form of C<goto> (in Perl, that is--C is another matter). |
1b6921cb BT |
2186 | (The difference being that C does not offer named loops combined with |
2187 | loop control. Perl does, and this replaces most structured uses of C<goto> | |
2188 | in other languages.) | |
a0d0e21e | 2189 | |
7660c0ab A |
2190 | The C<goto-EXPR> form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved |
2191 | dynamically. This allows for computed C<goto>s per FORTRAN, but isn't | |
748a9306 LW |
2192 | necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability: |
2193 | ||
2194 | goto ("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i]; | |
2195 | ||
1b6921cb BT |
2196 | The C<goto-&NAME> form is quite different from the other forms of |
2197 | C<goto>. In fact, it isn't a goto in the normal sense at all, and | |
2198 | doesn't have the stigma associated with other gotos. Instead, it | |
2199 | exits the current subroutine (losing any changes set by local()) and | |
2200 | immediately calls in its place the named subroutine using the current | |
2201 | value of @_. This is used by C<AUTOLOAD> subroutines that wish to | |
2202 | load another subroutine and then pretend that the other subroutine had | |
2203 | been called in the first place (except that any modifications to C<@_> | |
6cb9131c GS |
2204 | in the current subroutine are propagated to the other subroutine.) |
2205 | After the C<goto>, not even C<caller> will be able to tell that this | |
2206 | routine was called first. | |
2207 | ||
2208 | NAME needn't be the name of a subroutine; it can be a scalar variable | |
2209 | containing a code reference, or a block which evaluates to a code | |
2210 | reference. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2211 | |
2212 | =item grep BLOCK LIST | |
2213 | ||
2214 | =item grep EXPR,LIST | |
2215 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2216 | This is similar in spirit to, but not the same as, grep(1) and its |
2217 | relatives. In particular, it is not limited to using regular expressions. | |
2f9daede | 2218 | |
a0d0e21e | 2219 | Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting |
7660c0ab | 2220 | C<$_> to each element) and returns the list value consisting of those |
19799a22 GS |
2221 | elements for which the expression evaluated to true. In scalar |
2222 | context, returns the number of times the expression was true. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2223 | |
2224 | @foo = grep(!/^#/, @bar); # weed out comments | |
2225 | ||
2226 | or equivalently, | |
2227 | ||
2228 | @foo = grep {!/^#/} @bar; # weed out comments | |
2229 | ||
be3174d2 GS |
2230 | Note that C<$_> is an alias to the list value, so it can be used to |
2231 | modify the elements of the LIST. While this is useful and supported, | |
2232 | it can cause bizarre results if the elements of LIST are not variables. | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2233 | Similarly, grep returns aliases into the original list, much as a for |
2234 | loop's index variable aliases the list elements. That is, modifying an | |
19799a22 GS |
2235 | element of a list returned by grep (for example, in a C<foreach>, C<map> |
2236 | or another C<grep>) actually modifies the element in the original list. | |
2b5ab1e7 | 2237 | This is usually something to be avoided when writing clear code. |
a0d0e21e | 2238 | |
a4fb8298 RGS |
2239 | If C<$_> is lexical in the scope where the C<grep> appears (because it has |
2240 | been declared with C<my $_>) then, in addition the be locally aliased to | |
2241 | the list elements, C<$_> keeps being lexical inside the block; i.e. it | |
2242 | can't be seen from the outside, avoiding any potential side-effects. | |
2243 | ||
19799a22 | 2244 | See also L</map> for a list composed of the results of the BLOCK or EXPR. |
38325410 | 2245 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2246 | =item hex EXPR |
2247 | ||
54310121 | 2248 | =item hex |
bbce6d69 | 2249 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2250 | Interprets EXPR as a hex string and returns the corresponding value. |
2251 | (To convert strings that might start with either 0, 0x, or 0b, see | |
2252 | L</oct>.) If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. | |
2f9daede TP |
2253 | |
2254 | print hex '0xAf'; # prints '175' | |
2255 | print hex 'aF'; # same | |
a0d0e21e | 2256 | |
19799a22 | 2257 | Hex strings may only represent integers. Strings that would cause |
53305cf1 NC |
2258 | integer overflow trigger a warning. Leading whitespace is not stripped, |
2259 | unlike oct(). | |
19799a22 | 2260 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2261 | =item import |
2262 | ||
19799a22 | 2263 | There is no builtin C<import> function. It is just an ordinary |
4633a7c4 | 2264 | method (subroutine) defined (or inherited) by modules that wish to export |
19799a22 | 2265 | names to another module. The C<use> function calls the C<import> method |
cea6626f | 2266 | for the package used. See also L</use>, L<perlmod>, and L<Exporter>. |
a0d0e21e LW |
2267 | |
2268 | =item index STR,SUBSTR,POSITION | |
2269 | ||
2270 | =item index STR,SUBSTR | |
2271 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2272 | The index function searches for one string within another, but without |
2273 | the wildcard-like behavior of a full regular-expression pattern match. | |
2274 | It returns the position of the first occurrence of SUBSTR in STR at | |
2275 | or after POSITION. If POSITION is omitted, starts searching from the | |
2276 | beginning of the string. The return value is based at C<0> (or whatever | |
2277 | you've set the C<$[> variable to--but don't do that). If the substring | |
2278 | is not found, returns one less than the base, ordinarily C<-1>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2279 | |
2280 | =item int EXPR | |
2281 | ||
54310121 | 2282 | =item int |
bbce6d69 | 2283 | |
7660c0ab | 2284 | Returns the integer portion of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2285 | You should not use this function for rounding: one because it truncates |
2286 | towards C<0>, and two because machine representations of floating point | |
2287 | numbers can sometimes produce counterintuitive results. For example, | |
2288 | C<int(-6.725/0.025)> produces -268 rather than the correct -269; that's | |
2289 | because it's really more like -268.99999999999994315658 instead. Usually, | |
19799a22 | 2290 | the C<sprintf>, C<printf>, or the C<POSIX::floor> and C<POSIX::ceil> |
2b5ab1e7 | 2291 | functions will serve you better than will int(). |
a0d0e21e LW |
2292 | |
2293 | =item ioctl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR | |
2294 | ||
2b5ab1e7 | 2295 | Implements the ioctl(2) function. You'll probably first have to say |
a0d0e21e | 2296 | |
4633a7c4 | 2297 | require "ioctl.ph"; # probably in /usr/local/lib/perl/ioctl.ph |
a0d0e21e | 2298 | |
2b5ab1e7 | 2299 | to get the correct function definitions. If F<ioctl.ph> doesn't |
a0d0e21e | 2300 | exist or doesn't have the correct definitions you'll have to roll your |
61eff3bc | 2301 | own, based on your C header files such as F<< <sys/ioctl.h> >>. |
5a964f20 | 2302 | (There is a Perl script called B<h2ph> that comes with the Perl kit that |
54310121 | 2303 | may help you in this, but it's nontrivial.) SCALAR will be read and/or |
4633a7c4 | 2304 | written depending on the FUNCTION--a pointer to the string value of SCALAR |
19799a22 | 2305 | will be passed as the third argument of the actual C<ioctl> call. (If SCALAR |
4633a7c4 LW |
2306 | has no string value but does have a numeric value, that value will be |
2307 | passed rather than a pointer to the string value. To guarantee this to be | |
19799a22 GS |
2308 | true, add a C<0> to the scalar before using it.) The C<pack> and C<unpack> |
2309 | functions may be needed to manipulate the values of structures used by | |
b76cc8ba | 2310 | C<ioctl>. |
a0d0e21e | 2311 | |
19799a22 | 2312 | The return value of C<ioctl> (and C<fcntl>) is as follows: |
a0d0e21e LW |
2313 | |
2314 | if OS returns: then Perl returns: | |
2315 | -1 undefined value | |
2316 | 0 string "0 but true" | |
2317 | anything else that number | |
2318 | ||
19799a22 | 2319 | Thus Perl returns true on success and false on failure, yet you can |
a0d0e21e LW |
2320 | still easily determine the actual value returned by the operating |
2321 | system: | |
2322 | ||
2b5ab1e7 | 2323 | $retval = ioctl(...) || -1; |
a0d0e21e LW |
2324 | printf "System returned %d\n", $retval; |
2325 | ||
be2f7487 | 2326 | The special string C<"0 but true"> is exempt from B<-w> complaints |
5a964f20 TC |
2327 | about improper numeric conversions. |
2328 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
2329 | =item join EXPR,LIST |
2330 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2331 | Joins the separate strings of LIST into a single string with fields |
2332 | separated by the value of EXPR, and returns that new string. Example: | |
a0d0e21e | 2333 | |
2b5ab1e7 | 2334 | $rec = join(':', $login,$passwd,$uid,$gid,$gcos,$home,$shell); |
a0d0e21e | 2335 | |
eb6e2d6f GS |
2336 | Beware that unlike C<split>, C<join> doesn't take a pattern as its |
2337 | first argument. Compare L</split>. | |
a0d0e21e | 2338 | |
aa689395 | 2339 | =item keys HASH |
2340 | ||
504f80c1 JH |
2341 | Returns a list consisting of all the keys of the named hash. |
2342 | (In scalar context, returns the number of keys.) | |
2343 | ||
2344 | The keys are returned in an apparently random order. The actual | |
2345 | random order is subject to change in future versions of perl, but it | |
2346 | is guaranteed to be the same order as either the C<values> or C<each> | |
4546b9e6 JH |
2347 | function produces (given that the hash has not been modified). Since |
2348 | Perl 5.8.1 the ordering is different even between different runs of | |
2349 | Perl for security reasons (see L<perlsec/"Algorithmic Complexity | |
d6df3700 | 2350 | Attacks">). |
504f80c1 JH |
2351 | |
2352 | As a side effect, calling keys() resets the HASH's internal iterator, | |
2f65b2f0 RGS |
2353 | see L</each>. (In particular, calling keys() in void context resets |
2354 | the iterator with no other overhead.) | |
a0d0e21e | 2355 | |
aa689395 | 2356 | Here is yet another way to print your environment: |
a0d0e21e LW |
2357 | |
2358 | @keys = keys %ENV; | |
2359 | @values = values %ENV; | |
b76cc8ba | 2360 | while (@keys) { |
a0d0e21e LW |
2361 | print pop(@keys), '=', pop(@values), "\n"; |
2362 | } | |
2363 | ||
2364 | or how about sorted by key: | |
2365 | ||
2366 | foreach $key (sort(keys %ENV)) { | |
2367 | print $key, '=', $ENV{$key}, "\n"; | |
2368 | } | |
2369 | ||
8ea1e5d4 GS |
2370 | The returned values are copies of the original keys in the hash, so |
2371 | modifying them will not affect the original hash. Compare L</values>. | |
2372 | ||
19799a22 | 2373 | To sort a hash by value, you'll need to use a C<sort> function. |
aa689395 | 2374 | Here's a descending numeric sort of a hash by its values: |
4633a7c4 | 2375 | |
5a964f20 | 2376 | foreach $key (sort { $hash{$b} <=> $hash{$a} } keys %hash) { |
4633a7c4 LW |
2377 | printf "%4d %s\n", $hash{$key}, $key; |
2378 | } | |
2379 | ||
19799a22 | 2380 | As an lvalue C<keys> allows you to increase the number of hash buckets |
aa689395 | 2381 | allocated for the given hash. This can gain you a measure of efficiency if |
2382 | you know the hash is going to get big. (This is similar to pre-extending | |
2383 | an array by assigning a larger number to $#array.) If you say | |
55497cff | 2384 | |
2385 | keys %hash = 200; | |
2386 | ||
ab192400 GS |
2387 | then C<%hash> will have at least 200 buckets allocated for it--256 of them, |
2388 | in fact, since it rounds up to the next power of two. These | |
55497cff | 2389 | buckets will be retained even if you do C<%hash = ()>, use C<undef |
2390 | %hash> if you want to free the storage while C<%hash> is still in scope. | |
2391 | You can't shrink the number of buckets allocated for the hash using | |
19799a22 | 2392 | C<keys> in this way (but you needn't worry about doing this by accident, |
55497cff | 2393 | as trying has no effect). |
2394 | ||
19799a22 | 2395 | See also C<each>, C<values> and C<sort>. |
ab192400 | 2396 | |
b350dd2f | 2397 | =item kill SIGNAL, LIST |
a0d0e21e | 2398 | |
b350dd2f | 2399 | Sends a signal to a list of processes. Returns the number of |
517db077 GS |
2400 | processes successfully signaled (which is not necessarily the |
2401 | same as the number actually killed). | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2402 | |
2403 | $cnt = kill 1, $child1, $child2; | |
2404 | kill 9, @goners; | |
2405 | ||
b350dd2f | 2406 | If SIGNAL is zero, no signal is sent to the process. This is a |
1e9c1022 | 2407 | useful way to check that a child process is alive and hasn't changed |
b350dd2f GS |
2408 | its UID. See L<perlport> for notes on the portability of this |
2409 | construct. | |
2410 | ||
2411 | Unlike in the shell, if SIGNAL is negative, it kills | |
4633a7c4 LW |
2412 | process groups instead of processes. (On System V, a negative I<PROCESS> |
2413 | number will also kill process groups, but that's not portable.) That | |
2414 | means you usually want to use positive not negative signals. You may also | |
1e9c1022 JL |
2415 | use a signal name in quotes. |
2416 | ||
2417 | See L<perlipc/"Signals"> for more details. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2418 | |
2419 | =item last LABEL | |
2420 | ||
2421 | =item last | |
2422 | ||
2423 | The C<last> command is like the C<break> statement in C (as used in | |
2424 | loops); it immediately exits the loop in question. If the LABEL is | |
2425 | omitted, the command refers to the innermost enclosing loop. The | |
2426 | C<continue> block, if any, is not executed: | |
2427 | ||
4633a7c4 LW |
2428 | LINE: while (<STDIN>) { |
2429 | last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header | |
5a964f20 | 2430 | #... |
a0d0e21e LW |
2431 | } |
2432 | ||
4968c1e4 | 2433 | C<last> cannot be used to exit a block which returns a value such as |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2434 | C<eval {}>, C<sub {}> or C<do {}>, and should not be used to exit |
2435 | a grep() or map() operation. | |
4968c1e4 | 2436 | |
6c1372ed GS |
2437 | Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop |
2438 | that executes once. Thus C<last> can be used to effect an early | |
2439 | exit out of such a block. | |
2440 | ||
98293880 JH |
2441 | See also L</continue> for an illustration of how C<last>, C<next>, and |
2442 | C<redo> work. | |
1d2dff63 | 2443 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2444 | =item lc EXPR |
2445 | ||
54310121 | 2446 | =item lc |
bbce6d69 | 2447 | |
d1be9408 | 2448 | Returns a lowercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function |
ad0029c4 JH |
2449 | implementing the C<\L> escape in double-quoted strings. Respects |
2450 | current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale> | |
983ffd37 | 2451 | and L<perlunicode> for more details about locale and Unicode support. |
a0d0e21e | 2452 | |
7660c0ab | 2453 | If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. |
bbce6d69 | 2454 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2455 | =item lcfirst EXPR |
2456 | ||
54310121 | 2457 | =item lcfirst |
bbce6d69 | 2458 | |
ad0029c4 JH |
2459 | Returns the value of EXPR with the first character lowercased. This |
2460 | is the internal function implementing the C<\l> escape in | |
2461 | double-quoted strings. Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use | |
983ffd37 JH |
2462 | locale> in force. See L<perllocale> and L<perlunicode> for more |
2463 | details about locale and Unicode support. | |
a0d0e21e | 2464 | |
7660c0ab | 2465 | If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. |
bbce6d69 | 2466 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2467 | =item length EXPR |
2468 | ||
54310121 | 2469 | =item length |
bbce6d69 | 2470 | |
974da8e5 | 2471 | Returns the length in I<characters> of the value of EXPR. If EXPR is |
b76cc8ba | 2472 | omitted, returns length of C<$_>. Note that this cannot be used on |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2473 | an entire array or hash to find out how many elements these have. |
2474 | For that, use C<scalar @array> and C<scalar keys %hash> respectively. | |
a0d0e21e | 2475 | |
974da8e5 JH |
2476 | Note the I<characters>: if the EXPR is in Unicode, you will get the |
2477 | number of characters, not the number of bytes. To get the length | |
2478 | in bytes, use C<do { use bytes; length(EXPR) }>, see L<bytes>. | |
2479 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
2480 | =item link OLDFILE,NEWFILE |
2481 | ||
19799a22 | 2482 | Creates a new filename linked to the old filename. Returns true for |
b76cc8ba | 2483 | success, false otherwise. |
a0d0e21e LW |
2484 | |
2485 | =item listen SOCKET,QUEUESIZE | |
2486 | ||
19799a22 | 2487 | Does the same thing that the listen system call does. Returns true if |
b76cc8ba | 2488 | it succeeded, false otherwise. See the example in |
cea6626f | 2489 | L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">. |
a0d0e21e LW |
2490 | |
2491 | =item local EXPR | |
2492 | ||
19799a22 | 2493 | You really probably want to be using C<my> instead, because C<local> isn't |
b76cc8ba | 2494 | what most people think of as "local". See |
13a2d996 | 2495 | L<perlsub/"Private Variables via my()"> for details. |
2b5ab1e7 | 2496 | |
5a964f20 TC |
2497 | A local modifies the listed variables to be local to the enclosing |
2498 | block, file, or eval. If more than one value is listed, the list must | |
2499 | be placed in parentheses. See L<perlsub/"Temporary Values via local()"> | |
2500 | for details, including issues with tied arrays and hashes. | |
a0d0e21e | 2501 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2502 | =item localtime EXPR |
2503 | ||
19799a22 | 2504 | Converts a time as returned by the time function to a 9-element list |
5f05dabc | 2505 | with the time analyzed for the local time zone. Typically used as |
a0d0e21e LW |
2506 | follows: |
2507 | ||
54310121 | 2508 | # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 |
a0d0e21e LW |
2509 | ($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday,$isdst) = |
2510 | localtime(time); | |
2511 | ||
48a26b3a GS |
2512 | All list elements are numeric, and come straight out of the C `struct |
2513 | tm'. $sec, $min, and $hour are the seconds, minutes, and hours of the | |
2514 | specified time. $mday is the day of the month, and $mon is the month | |
2515 | itself, in the range C<0..11> with 0 indicating January and 11 | |
2516 | indicating December. $year is the number of years since 1900. That | |
2517 | is, $year is C<123> in year 2023. $wday is the day of the week, with | |
2518 | 0 indicating Sunday and 3 indicating Wednesday. $yday is the day of | |
874b1813 | 2519 | the year, in the range C<0..364> (or C<0..365> in leap years.) $isdst |
48a26b3a GS |
2520 | is true if the specified time occurs during daylight savings time, |
2521 | false otherwise. | |
2522 | ||
2523 | Note that the $year element is I<not> simply the last two digits of | |
2524 | the year. If you assume it is, then you create non-Y2K-compliant | |
2525 | programs--and you wouldn't want to do that, would you? | |
54310121 | 2526 | |
abd75f24 GS |
2527 | The proper way to get a complete 4-digit year is simply: |
2528 | ||
2529 | $year += 1900; | |
2530 | ||
2531 | And to get the last two digits of the year (e.g., '01' in 2001) do: | |
2532 | ||
2533 | $year = sprintf("%02d", $year % 100); | |
2534 | ||
48a26b3a | 2535 | If EXPR is omitted, C<localtime()> uses the current time (C<localtime(time)>). |
a0d0e21e | 2536 | |
48a26b3a | 2537 | In scalar context, C<localtime()> returns the ctime(3) value: |
a0d0e21e | 2538 | |
5f05dabc | 2539 | $now_string = localtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994" |
a0d0e21e | 2540 | |
a3cb178b | 2541 | This scalar value is B<not> locale dependent, see L<perllocale>, but |
68f8bed4 JH |
2542 | instead a Perl builtin. Also see the C<Time::Local> module |
2543 | (to convert the second, minutes, hours, ... back to seconds since the | |
2544 | stroke of midnight the 1st of January 1970, the value returned by | |
ca6e1c26 | 2545 | time()), and the strftime(3) and mktime(3) functions available via the |
68f8bed4 JH |
2546 | POSIX module. To get somewhat similar but locale dependent date |
2547 | strings, set up your locale environment variables appropriately | |
2548 | (please see L<perllocale>) and try for example: | |
a3cb178b | 2549 | |
5a964f20 | 2550 | use POSIX qw(strftime); |
2b5ab1e7 | 2551 | $now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", localtime; |
a3cb178b GS |
2552 | |
2553 | Note that the C<%a> and C<%b>, the short forms of the day of the week | |
2554 | and the month of the year, may not necessarily be three characters wide. | |
a0d0e21e | 2555 | |
07698885 | 2556 | =item lock THING |
19799a22 | 2557 | |
01e6739c | 2558 | This function places an advisory lock on a shared variable, or referenced |
03730085 | 2559 | object contained in I<THING> until the lock goes out of scope. |
a6d5524e | 2560 | |
f3a23afb | 2561 | lock() is a "weak keyword" : this means that if you've defined a function |
67408cae | 2562 | by this name (before any calls to it), that function will be called |
03730085 AB |
2563 | instead. (However, if you've said C<use threads>, lock() is always a |
2564 | keyword.) See L<threads>. | |
19799a22 | 2565 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2566 | =item log EXPR |
2567 | ||
54310121 | 2568 | =item log |
bbce6d69 | 2569 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2570 | Returns the natural logarithm (base I<e>) of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, |
2571 | returns log of C<$_>. To get the log of another base, use basic algebra: | |
19799a22 | 2572 | The base-N log of a number is equal to the natural log of that number |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2573 | divided by the natural log of N. For example: |
2574 | ||
2575 | sub log10 { | |
2576 | my $n = shift; | |
2577 | return log($n)/log(10); | |
b76cc8ba | 2578 | } |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2579 | |
2580 | See also L</exp> for the inverse operation. | |
a0d0e21e | 2581 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2582 | =item lstat EXPR |
2583 | ||
54310121 | 2584 | =item lstat |
bbce6d69 | 2585 | |
19799a22 | 2586 | Does the same thing as the C<stat> function (including setting the |
5a964f20 TC |
2587 | special C<_> filehandle) but stats a symbolic link instead of the file |
2588 | the symbolic link points to. If symbolic links are unimplemented on | |
c837d5b4 DP |
2589 | your system, a normal C<stat> is done. For much more detailed |
2590 | information, please see the documentation for C<stat>. | |
a0d0e21e | 2591 | |
7660c0ab | 2592 | If EXPR is omitted, stats C<$_>. |
bbce6d69 | 2593 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2594 | =item m// |
2595 | ||
2596 | The match operator. See L<perlop>. | |
2597 | ||
2598 | =item map BLOCK LIST | |
2599 | ||
2600 | =item map EXPR,LIST | |
2601 | ||
19799a22 GS |
2602 | Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting |
2603 | C<$_> to each element) and returns the list value composed of the | |
2604 | results of each such evaluation. In scalar context, returns the | |
2605 | total number of elements so generated. Evaluates BLOCK or EXPR in | |
2606 | list context, so each element of LIST may produce zero, one, or | |
2607 | more elements in the returned value. | |
dd99ebda | 2608 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2609 | @chars = map(chr, @nums); |
2610 | ||
2611 | translates a list of numbers to the corresponding characters. And | |
2612 | ||
4633a7c4 | 2613 | %hash = map { getkey($_) => $_ } @array; |
a0d0e21e LW |
2614 | |
2615 | is just a funny way to write | |
2616 | ||
2617 | %hash = (); | |
2618 | foreach $_ (@array) { | |
4633a7c4 | 2619 | $hash{getkey($_)} = $_; |
a0d0e21e LW |
2620 | } |
2621 | ||
be3174d2 GS |
2622 | Note that C<$_> is an alias to the list value, so it can be used to |
2623 | modify the elements of the LIST. While this is useful and supported, | |
2624 | it can cause bizarre results if the elements of LIST are not variables. | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2625 | Using a regular C<foreach> loop for this purpose would be clearer in |
2626 | most cases. See also L</grep> for an array composed of those items of | |
2627 | the original list for which the BLOCK or EXPR evaluates to true. | |
fb73857a | 2628 | |
a4fb8298 RGS |
2629 | If C<$_> is lexical in the scope where the C<map> appears (because it has |
2630 | been declared with C<my $_>) then, in addition the be locally aliased to | |
2631 | the list elements, C<$_> keeps being lexical inside the block; i.e. it | |
2632 | can't be seen from the outside, avoiding any potential side-effects. | |
2633 | ||
205fdb4d NC |
2634 | C<{> starts both hash references and blocks, so C<map { ...> could be either |
2635 | the start of map BLOCK LIST or map EXPR, LIST. Because perl doesn't look | |
2636 | ahead for the closing C<}> it has to take a guess at which its dealing with | |
2637 | based what it finds just after the C<{>. Usually it gets it right, but if it | |
2638 | doesn't it won't realize something is wrong until it gets to the C<}> and | |
2639 | encounters the missing (or unexpected) comma. The syntax error will be | |
2640 | reported close to the C<}> but you'll need to change something near the C<{> | |
2641 | such as using a unary C<+> to give perl some help: | |
2642 | ||
2643 | %hash = map { "\L$_", 1 } @array # perl guesses EXPR. wrong | |
2644 | %hash = map { +"\L$_", 1 } @array # perl guesses BLOCK. right | |
2645 | %hash = map { ("\L$_", 1) } @array # this also works | |
2646 | %hash = map { lc($_), 1 } @array # as does this. | |
2647 | %hash = map +( lc($_), 1 ), @array # this is EXPR and works! | |
cea6626f | 2648 | |
205fdb4d NC |
2649 | %hash = map ( lc($_), 1 ), @array # evaluates to (1, @array) |
2650 | ||
2651 | or to force an anon hash constructor use C<+{> | |
2652 | ||
2653 | @hashes = map +{ lc($_), 1 }, @array # EXPR, so needs , at end | |
2654 | ||
2655 | and you get list of anonymous hashes each with only 1 entry. | |
2656 | ||
19799a22 | 2657 | =item mkdir FILENAME,MASK |
a0d0e21e | 2658 | |
5a211162 GS |
2659 | =item mkdir FILENAME |
2660 | ||
0591cd52 | 2661 | Creates the directory specified by FILENAME, with permissions |
19799a22 GS |
2662 | specified by MASK (as modified by C<umask>). If it succeeds it |
2663 | returns true, otherwise it returns false and sets C<$!> (errno). | |
5a211162 | 2664 | If omitted, MASK defaults to 0777. |
0591cd52 | 2665 | |
19799a22 | 2666 | In general, it is better to create directories with permissive MASK, |
0591cd52 | 2667 | and let the user modify that with their C<umask>, than it is to supply |
19799a22 | 2668 | a restrictive MASK and give the user no way to be more permissive. |
0591cd52 NT |
2669 | The exceptions to this rule are when the file or directory should be |
2670 | kept private (mail files, for instance). The perlfunc(1) entry on | |
19799a22 | 2671 | C<umask> discusses the choice of MASK in more detail. |
a0d0e21e | 2672 | |
cc1852e8 JH |
2673 | Note that according to the POSIX 1003.1-1996 the FILENAME may have any |
2674 | number of trailing slashes. Some operating and filesystems do not get | |
2675 | this right, so Perl automatically removes all trailing slashes to keep | |
2676 | everyone happy. | |
2677 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
2678 | =item msgctl ID,CMD,ARG |
2679 | ||
f86cebdf | 2680 | Calls the System V IPC function msgctl(2). You'll probably have to say |
0ade1984 JH |
2681 | |
2682 | use IPC::SysV; | |
2683 | ||
7660c0ab A |
2684 | first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is C<IPC_STAT>, |
2685 | then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned C<msqid_ds> | |
951ba7fe GS |
2686 | structure. Returns like C<ioctl>: the undefined value for error, |
2687 | C<"0 but true"> for zero, or the actual return value otherwise. See also | |
4755096e | 2688 | L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, C<IPC::SysV>, and C<IPC::Semaphore> documentation. |
a0d0e21e LW |
2689 | |
2690 | =item msgget KEY,FLAGS | |
2691 | ||
f86cebdf | 2692 | Calls the System V IPC function msgget(2). Returns the message queue |
4755096e GS |
2693 | id, or the undefined value if there is an error. See also |
2694 | L<perlipc/"SysV IPC"> and C<IPC::SysV> and C<IPC::Msg> documentation. | |
a0d0e21e | 2695 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2696 | =item msgrcv ID,VAR,SIZE,TYPE,FLAGS |
2697 | ||
2698 | Calls the System V IPC function msgrcv to receive a message from | |
2699 | message queue ID into variable VAR with a maximum message size of | |
41d6edb2 JH |
2700 | SIZE. Note that when a message is received, the message type as a |
2701 | native long integer will be the first thing in VAR, followed by the | |
2702 | actual message. This packing may be opened with C<unpack("l! a*")>. | |
2703 | Taints the variable. Returns true if successful, or false if there is | |
4755096e GS |
2704 | an error. See also L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, C<IPC::SysV>, and |
2705 | C<IPC::SysV::Msg> documentation. | |
41d6edb2 JH |
2706 | |
2707 | =item msgsnd ID,MSG,FLAGS | |
2708 | ||
2709 | Calls the System V IPC function msgsnd to send the message MSG to the | |
2710 | message queue ID. MSG must begin with the native long integer message | |
2711 | type, and be followed by the length of the actual message, and finally | |
2712 | the message itself. This kind of packing can be achieved with | |
2713 | C<pack("l! a*", $type, $message)>. Returns true if successful, | |
2714 | or false if there is an error. See also C<IPC::SysV> | |
2715 | and C<IPC::SysV::Msg> documentation. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2716 | |
2717 | =item my EXPR | |
2718 | ||
307ea6df JH |
2719 | =item my TYPE EXPR |
2720 | ||
1d2de774 | 2721 | =item my EXPR : ATTRS |
09bef843 | 2722 | |
1d2de774 | 2723 | =item my TYPE EXPR : ATTRS |
307ea6df | 2724 | |
19799a22 | 2725 | A C<my> declares the listed variables to be local (lexically) to the |
1d2de774 JH |
2726 | enclosing block, file, or C<eval>. If more than one value is listed, |
2727 | the list must be placed in parentheses. | |
307ea6df | 2728 | |
1d2de774 JH |
2729 | The exact semantics and interface of TYPE and ATTRS are still |
2730 | evolving. TYPE is currently bound to the use of C<fields> pragma, | |
307ea6df JH |
2731 | and attributes are handled using the C<attributes> pragma, or starting |
2732 | from Perl 5.8.0 also via the C<Attribute::Handlers> module. See | |
2733 | L<perlsub/"Private Variables via my()"> for details, and L<fields>, | |
2734 | L<attributes>, and L<Attribute::Handlers>. | |
4633a7c4 | 2735 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2736 | =item next LABEL |
2737 | ||
2738 | =item next | |
2739 | ||
2740 | The C<next> command is like the C<continue> statement in C; it starts | |
2741 | the next iteration of the loop: | |
2742 | ||
4633a7c4 LW |
2743 | LINE: while (<STDIN>) { |
2744 | next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments | |
5a964f20 | 2745 | #... |
a0d0e21e LW |
2746 | } |
2747 | ||
2748 | Note that if there were a C<continue> block on the above, it would get | |
2749 | executed even on discarded lines. If the LABEL is omitted, the command | |
2750 | refers to the innermost enclosing loop. | |
2751 | ||
4968c1e4 | 2752 | C<next> cannot be used to exit a block which returns a value such as |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
2753 | C<eval {}>, C<sub {}> or C<do {}>, and should not be used to exit |
2754 | a grep() or map() operation. | |
4968c1e4 | 2755 | |
6c1372ed GS |
2756 | Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop |
2757 | that executes once. Thus C<next> will exit such a block early. | |
2758 | ||
98293880 JH |
2759 | See also L</continue> for an illustration of how C<last>, C<next>, and |
2760 | C<redo> work. | |
1d2dff63 | 2761 | |
4a66ea5a RGS |
2762 | =item no Module VERSION LIST |
2763 | ||
2764 | =item no Module VERSION | |
2765 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
2766 | =item no Module LIST |
2767 | ||
4a66ea5a RGS |
2768 | =item no Module |
2769 | ||
593b9c14 | 2770 | See the C<use> function, of which C<no> is the opposite. |
a0d0e21e LW |
2771 | |
2772 | =item oct EXPR | |
2773 | ||
54310121 | 2774 | =item oct |
bbce6d69 | 2775 | |
4633a7c4 | 2776 | Interprets EXPR as an octal string and returns the corresponding |
4f19785b WSI |
2777 | value. (If EXPR happens to start off with C<0x>, interprets it as a |
2778 | hex string. If EXPR starts off with C<0b>, it is interpreted as a | |
53305cf1 NC |
2779 | binary string. Leading whitespace is ignored in all three cases.) |
2780 | The following will handle decimal, binary, octal, and hex in the standard | |
2781 | Perl or C notation: | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2782 | |
2783 | $val = oct($val) if $val =~ /^0/; | |
2784 | ||
19799a22 GS |
2785 | If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. To go the other way (produce a number |
2786 | in octal), use sprintf() or printf(): | |
2787 | ||
2788 | $perms = (stat("filename"))[2] & 07777; | |
2789 | $oct_perms = sprintf "%lo", $perms; | |
2790 | ||
2791 | The oct() function is commonly used when a string such as C<644> needs | |
2792 | to be converted into a file mode, for example. (Although perl will | |
2793 | automatically convert strings into numbers as needed, this automatic | |
2794 | conversion assumes base 10.) | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2795 | |
2796 | =item open FILEHANDLE,EXPR | |
2797 | ||
68bd7414 NIS |
2798 | =item open FILEHANDLE,MODE,EXPR |
2799 | ||
2800 | =item open FILEHANDLE,MODE,EXPR,LIST | |
2801 | ||
ba964c95 T |
2802 | =item open FILEHANDLE,MODE,REFERENCE |
2803 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
2804 | =item open FILEHANDLE |
2805 | ||
2806 | Opens the file whose filename is given by EXPR, and associates it with | |
ed53a2bb JH |
2807 | FILEHANDLE. |
2808 | ||
2809 | (The following is a comprehensive reference to open(): for a gentler | |
2810 | introduction you may consider L<perlopentut>.) | |
2811 | ||
a28cd5c9 NT |
2812 | If FILEHANDLE is an undefined scalar variable (or array or hash element) |
2813 | the variable is assigned a reference to a new anonymous filehandle, | |
2814 | otherwise if FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is used as the name of | |
2815 | the real filehandle wanted. (This is considered a symbolic reference, so | |
2816 | C<use strict 'refs'> should I<not> be in effect.) | |
ed53a2bb JH |
2817 | |
2818 | If EXPR is omitted, the scalar variable of the same name as the | |
2819 | FILEHANDLE contains the filename. (Note that lexical variables--those | |
2820 | declared with C<my>--will not work for this purpose; so if you're | |
67408cae | 2821 | using C<my>, specify EXPR in your call to open.) |
ed53a2bb JH |
2822 | |
2823 | If three or more arguments are specified then the mode of opening and | |
2824 | the file name are separate. If MODE is C<< '<' >> or nothing, the file | |
2825 | is opened for input. If MODE is C<< '>' >>, the file is truncated and | |
2826 | opened for output, being created if necessary. If MODE is C<<< '>>' >>>, | |
b76cc8ba | 2827 | the file is opened for appending, again being created if necessary. |
5a964f20 | 2828 | |
ed53a2bb JH |
2829 | You can put a C<'+'> in front of the C<< '>' >> or C<< '<' >> to |
2830 | indicate that you want both read and write access to the file; thus | |
2831 | C<< '+<' >> is almost always preferred for read/write updates--the C<< | |
2832 | '+>' >> mode would clobber the file first. You can't usually use | |
2833 | either read-write mode for updating textfiles, since they have | |
2834 | variable length records. See the B<-i> switch in L<perlrun> for a | |
2835 | better approach. The file is created with permissions of C<0666> | |
2836 | modified by the process' C<umask> value. | |
2837 | ||
2838 | These various prefixes correspond to the fopen(3) modes of C<'r'>, | |
2839 | C<'r+'>, C<'w'>, C<'w+'>, C<'a'>, and C<'a+'>. | |
5f05dabc | 2840 | |
6170680b IZ |
2841 | In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form of the call the mode and |
2842 | filename should be concatenated (in this order), possibly separated by | |
68bd7414 NIS |
2843 | spaces. It is possible to omit the mode in these forms if the mode is |
2844 | C<< '<' >>. | |
6170680b | 2845 | |
7660c0ab | 2846 | If the filename begins with C<'|'>, the filename is interpreted as a |
5a964f20 | 2847 | command to which output is to be piped, and if the filename ends with a |
f244e06d GS |
2848 | C<'|'>, the filename is interpreted as a command which pipes output to |
2849 | us. See L<perlipc/"Using open() for IPC"> | |
19799a22 | 2850 | for more examples of this. (You are not allowed to C<open> to a command |
5a964f20 | 2851 | that pipes both in I<and> out, but see L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>, |
4a4eefd0 GS |
2852 | and L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication with Another Process"> |
2853 | for alternatives.) | |
cb1a09d0 | 2854 | |
ed53a2bb JH |
2855 | For three or more arguments if MODE is C<'|-'>, the filename is |
2856 | interpreted as a command to which output is to be piped, and if MODE | |
2857 | is C<'-|'>, the filename is interpreted as a command which pipes | |
2858 | output to us. In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form one should | |
2859 | replace dash (C<'-'>) with the command. | |
2860 | See L<perlipc/"Using open() for IPC"> for more examples of this. | |
2861 | (You are not allowed to C<open> to a command that pipes both in I<and> | |
2862 | out, but see L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>, and | |
2863 | L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication"> for alternatives.) | |
2864 | ||
2865 | In the three-or-more argument form of pipe opens, if LIST is specified | |
2866 | (extra arguments after the command name) then LIST becomes arguments | |
2867 | to the command invoked if the platform supports it. The meaning of | |
2868 | C<open> with more than three arguments for non-pipe modes is not yet | |
2869 | specified. Experimental "layers" may give extra LIST arguments | |
2870 | meaning. | |
6170680b IZ |
2871 | |
2872 | In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form opening C<'-'> opens STDIN | |
b76cc8ba | 2873 | and opening C<< '>-' >> opens STDOUT. |
6170680b | 2874 | |
fae2c0fb RGS |
2875 | You may use the three-argument form of open to specify IO "layers" |
2876 | (sometimes also referred to as "disciplines") to be applied to the handle | |
2877 | that affect how the input and output are processed (see L<open> and | |
2878 | L<PerlIO> for more details). For example | |
7207e29d | 2879 | |
9124316e JH |
2880 | open(FH, "<:utf8", "file") |
2881 | ||
2882 | will open the UTF-8 encoded file containing Unicode characters, | |
fae2c0fb RGS |
2883 | see L<perluniintro>. (Note that if layers are specified in the |
2884 | three-arg form then default layers set by the C<open> pragma are | |
01e6739c | 2885 | ignored.) |
ed53a2bb JH |
2886 | |
2887 | Open returns nonzero upon success, the undefined value otherwise. If | |
2888 | the C<open> involved a pipe, the return value happens to be the pid of | |
2889 | the subprocess. | |
cb1a09d0 | 2890 | |
ed53a2bb JH |
2891 | If you're running Perl on a system that distinguishes between text |
2892 | files and binary files, then you should check out L</binmode> for tips | |
2893 | for dealing with this. The key distinction between systems that need | |
2894 | C<binmode> and those that don't is their text file formats. Systems | |
8939ba94 | 2895 | like Unix, Mac OS, and Plan 9, which delimit lines with a single |
ed53a2bb JH |
2896 | character, and which encode that character in C as C<"\n">, do not |
2897 | need C<binmode>. The rest need it. | |
cb1a09d0 | 2898 | |
fb73857a | 2899 | When opening a file, it's usually a bad idea to continue normal execution |
19799a22 GS |
2900 | if the request failed, so C<open> is frequently used in connection with |
2901 | C<die>. Even if C<die> won't do what you want (say, in a CGI script, | |
fb73857a | 2902 | where you want to make a nicely formatted error message (but there are |
5a964f20 | 2903 | modules that can help with that problem)) you should always check |
19799a22 | 2904 | the return value from opening a file. The infrequent exception is when |
fb73857a | 2905 | working with an unopened filehandle is actually what you want to do. |
2906 | ||
ed53a2bb JH |
2907 | As a special case the 3 arg form with a read/write mode and the third |
2908 | argument being C<undef>: | |
b76cc8ba NIS |
2909 | |
2910 | open(TMP, "+>", undef) or die ... | |
2911 | ||
f253e835 JH |
2912 | opens a filehandle to an anonymous temporary file. Also using "+<" |
2913 | works for symmetry, but you really should consider writing something | |
2914 | to the temporary file first. You will need to seek() to do the | |
2915 | reading. | |
b76cc8ba | 2916 | |
ba964c95 T |
2917 | File handles can be opened to "in memory" files held in Perl scalars via: |
2918 | ||
b996200f SB |
2919 | open($fh, '>', \$variable) || .. |
2920 | ||
2921 | Though if you try to re-open C<STDOUT> or C<STDERR> as an "in memory" | |
2922 | file, you have to close it first: | |
2923 | ||
2924 | close STDOUT; | |
2925 | open STDOUT, '>', \$variable or die "Can't open STDOUT: $!"; | |
ba964c95 | 2926 | |
cb1a09d0 | 2927 | Examples: |
a0d0e21e LW |
2928 | |
2929 | $ARTICLE = 100; | |
2930 | open ARTICLE or die "Can't find article $ARTICLE: $!\n"; | |
2931 | while (<ARTICLE>) {... | |
2932 | ||
6170680b | 2933 | open(LOG, '>>/usr/spool/news/twitlog'); # (log is reserved) |
fb73857a | 2934 | # if the open fails, output is discarded |
a0d0e21e | 2935 | |
6170680b | 2936 | open(DBASE, '+<', 'dbase.mine') # open for update |
fb73857a | 2937 | or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!"; |
cb1a09d0 | 2938 | |
6170680b IZ |
2939 | open(DBASE, '+<dbase.mine') # ditto |
2940 | or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!"; | |
2941 | ||
2942 | open(ARTICLE, '-|', "caesar <$article") # decrypt article | |
fb73857a | 2943 | or die "Can't start caesar: $!"; |
a0d0e21e | 2944 | |
6170680b IZ |
2945 | open(ARTICLE, "caesar <$article |") # ditto |
2946 | or die "Can't start caesar: $!"; | |
2947 | ||
2359510d | 2948 | open(EXTRACT, "|sort >Tmp$$") # $$ is our process id |
fb73857a | 2949 | or die "Can't start sort: $!"; |
a0d0e21e | 2950 | |
ba964c95 T |
2951 | # in memory files |
2952 | open(MEMORY,'>', \$var) | |
2953 | or die "Can't open memory file: $!"; | |
2954 | print MEMORY "foo!\n"; # output will end up in $var | |
2955 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
2956 | # process argument list of files along with any includes |
2957 | ||
2958 | foreach $file (@ARGV) { | |
2959 | process($file, 'fh00'); | |
2960 | } | |
2961 | ||
2962 | sub process { | |
5a964f20 | 2963 | my($filename, $input) = @_; |
a0d0e21e LW |
2964 | $input++; # this is a string increment |
2965 | unless (open($input, $filename)) { | |
2966 | print STDERR "Can't open $filename: $!\n"; | |
2967 | return; | |
2968 | } | |
2969 | ||
5a964f20 | 2970 | local $_; |
a0d0e21e LW |
2971 | while (<$input>) { # note use of indirection |
2972 | if (/^#include "(.*)"/) { | |
2973 | process($1, $input); | |
2974 | next; | |
2975 | } | |
5a964f20 | 2976 | #... # whatever |
a0d0e21e LW |
2977 | } |
2978 | } | |
2979 | ||
2980 | You may also, in the Bourne shell tradition, specify an EXPR beginning | |
00cafafa JH |
2981 | with C<< '>&' >>, in which case the rest of the string is interpreted |
2982 | as the name of a filehandle (or file descriptor, if numeric) to be | |
2983 | duped (as L<dup(2)>) and opened. You may use C<&> after C<< > >>, | |
2984 | C<<< >> >>>, C<< < >>, C<< +> >>, C<<< +>> >>>, and C<< +< >>. | |
2985 | The mode you specify should match the mode of the original filehandle. | |
2986 | (Duping a filehandle does not take into account any existing contents | |
2987 | of IO buffers.) If you use the 3 arg form then you can pass either a | |
2988 | number, the name of a filehandle or the normal "reference to a glob". | |
6170680b | 2989 | |
eae1b76b SB |
2990 | Here is a script that saves, redirects, and restores C<STDOUT> and |
2991 | C<STDERR> using various methods: | |
a0d0e21e LW |
2992 | |
2993 | #!/usr/bin/perl | |
eae1b76b SB |
2994 | open my $oldout, ">&STDOUT" or die "Can't dup STDOUT: $!"; |
2995 | open OLDERR, ">&", \*STDERR or die "Can't dup STDERR: $!"; | |
818c4caa | 2996 | |
eae1b76b SB |
2997 | open STDOUT, '>', "foo.out" or die "Can't redirect STDOUT: $!"; |
2998 | open STDERR, ">&STDOUT" or die "Can't dup STDOUT: $!"; | |
a0d0e21e | 2999 | |
eae1b76b SB |
3000 | select STDERR; $| = 1; # make unbuffered |
3001 | select STDOUT; $| = 1; # make unbuffered | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3002 | |
3003 | print STDOUT "stdout 1\n"; # this works for | |
3004 | print STDERR "stderr 1\n"; # subprocesses too | |
3005 | ||
eae1b76b SB |
3006 | open STDOUT, ">&", $oldout or die "Can't dup \$oldout: $!"; |
3007 | open STDERR, ">&OLDERR" or die "Can't dup OLDERR: $!"; | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3008 | |
3009 | print STDOUT "stdout 2\n"; | |
3010 | print STDERR "stderr 2\n"; | |
3011 | ||
ef8b303f JH |
3012 | If you specify C<< '<&=X' >>, where C<X> is a file descriptor number |
3013 | or a filehandle, then Perl will do an equivalent of C's C<fdopen> of | |
3014 | that file descriptor (and not call L<dup(2)>); this is more | |
3015 | parsimonious of file descriptors. For example: | |
a0d0e21e | 3016 | |
00cafafa | 3017 | # open for input, reusing the fileno of $fd |
a0d0e21e | 3018 | open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=$fd") |
df632fdf | 3019 | |
b76cc8ba | 3020 | or |
df632fdf | 3021 | |
b76cc8ba | 3022 | open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=", $fd) |
a0d0e21e | 3023 | |
00cafafa JH |
3024 | or |
3025 | ||
3026 | # open for append, using the fileno of OLDFH | |
3027 | open(FH, ">>&=", OLDFH) | |
3028 | ||
3029 | or | |
3030 | ||
3031 | open(FH, ">>&=OLDFH") | |
3032 | ||
ef8b303f JH |
3033 | Being parsimonious on filehandles is also useful (besides being |
3034 | parsimonious) for example when something is dependent on file | |
3035 | descriptors, like for example locking using flock(). If you do just | |
3036 | C<< open(A, '>>&B') >>, the filehandle A will not have the same file | |
3037 | descriptor as B, and therefore flock(A) will not flock(B), and vice | |
3038 | versa. But with C<< open(A, '>>&=B') >> the filehandles will share | |
3039 | the same file descriptor. | |
3040 | ||
3041 | Note that if you are using Perls older than 5.8.0, Perl will be using | |
3042 | the standard C libraries' fdopen() to implement the "=" functionality. | |
3043 | On many UNIX systems fdopen() fails when file descriptors exceed a | |
3044 | certain value, typically 255. For Perls 5.8.0 and later, PerlIO is | |
3045 | most often the default. | |
4af147f6 | 3046 | |
df632fdf JH |
3047 | You can see whether Perl has been compiled with PerlIO or not by |
3048 | running C<perl -V> and looking for C<useperlio=> line. If C<useperlio> | |
3049 | is C<define>, you have PerlIO, otherwise you don't. | |
3050 | ||
6170680b IZ |
3051 | If you open a pipe on the command C<'-'>, i.e., either C<'|-'> or C<'-|'> |
3052 | with 2-arguments (or 1-argument) form of open(), then | |
a0d0e21e | 3053 | there is an implicit fork done, and the return value of open is the pid |
7660c0ab | 3054 | of the child within the parent process, and C<0> within the child |
184e9718 | 3055 | process. (Use C<defined($pid)> to determine whether the open was successful.) |
a0d0e21e LW |
3056 | The filehandle behaves normally for the parent, but i/o to that |
3057 | filehandle is piped from/to the STDOUT/STDIN of the child process. | |
3058 | In the child process the filehandle isn't opened--i/o happens from/to | |
3059 | the new STDOUT or STDIN. Typically this is used like the normal | |
3060 | piped open when you want to exercise more control over just how the | |
3061 | pipe command gets executed, such as when you are running setuid, and | |
54310121 | 3062 | don't want to have to scan shell commands for metacharacters. |
6170680b | 3063 | The following triples are more or less equivalent: |
a0d0e21e LW |
3064 | |
3065 | open(FOO, "|tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'"); | |
6170680b IZ |
3066 | open(FOO, '|-', "tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'"); |
3067 | open(FOO, '|-') || exec 'tr', '[a-z]', '[A-Z]'; | |
b76cc8ba | 3068 | open(FOO, '|-', "tr", '[a-z]', '[A-Z]'); |
a0d0e21e LW |
3069 | |
3070 | open(FOO, "cat -n '$file'|"); | |
6170680b IZ |
3071 | open(FOO, '-|', "cat -n '$file'"); |
3072 | open(FOO, '-|') || exec 'cat', '-n', $file; | |
b76cc8ba NIS |
3073 | open(FOO, '-|', "cat", '-n', $file); |
3074 | ||
3075 | The last example in each block shows the pipe as "list form", which is | |
64da03b2 JH |
3076 | not yet supported on all platforms. A good rule of thumb is that if |
3077 | your platform has true C<fork()> (in other words, if your platform is | |
3078 | UNIX) you can use the list form. | |
a0d0e21e | 3079 | |
4633a7c4 LW |
3080 | See L<perlipc/"Safe Pipe Opens"> for more examples of this. |
3081 | ||
0f897271 GS |
3082 | Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for |
3083 | output before any operation that may do a fork, but this may not be | |
3084 | supported on some platforms (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need | |
3085 | to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method | |
3086 | of C<IO::Handle> on any open handles. | |
3087 | ||
ed53a2bb JH |
3088 | On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will |
3089 | be set for the newly opened file descriptor as determined by the value | |
3090 | of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>. | |
a0d0e21e | 3091 | |
0dccf244 CS |
3092 | Closing any piped filehandle causes the parent process to wait for the |
3093 | child to finish, and returns the status value in C<$?>. | |
3094 | ||
ed53a2bb JH |
3095 | The filename passed to 2-argument (or 1-argument) form of open() will |
3096 | have leading and trailing whitespace deleted, and the normal | |
3097 | redirection characters honored. This property, known as "magic open", | |
5a964f20 | 3098 | can often be used to good effect. A user could specify a filename of |
7660c0ab | 3099 | F<"rsh cat file |">, or you could change certain filenames as needed: |
5a964f20 TC |
3100 | |
3101 | $filename =~ s/(.*\.gz)\s*$/gzip -dc < $1|/; | |
3102 | open(FH, $filename) or die "Can't open $filename: $!"; | |
3103 | ||
6170680b IZ |
3104 | Use 3-argument form to open a file with arbitrary weird characters in it, |
3105 | ||
3106 | open(FOO, '<', $file); | |
3107 | ||
3108 | otherwise it's necessary to protect any leading and trailing whitespace: | |
5a964f20 TC |
3109 | |
3110 | $file =~ s#^(\s)#./$1#; | |
3111 | open(FOO, "< $file\0"); | |
3112 | ||
a31a806a | 3113 | (this may not work on some bizarre filesystems). One should |
106325ad | 3114 | conscientiously choose between the I<magic> and 3-arguments form |
6170680b IZ |
3115 | of open(): |
3116 | ||
3117 | open IN, $ARGV[0]; | |
3118 | ||
3119 | will allow the user to specify an argument of the form C<"rsh cat file |">, | |
3120 | but will not work on a filename which happens to have a trailing space, while | |
3121 | ||
3122 | open IN, '<', $ARGV[0]; | |
3123 | ||
3124 | will have exactly the opposite restrictions. | |
3125 | ||
19799a22 | 3126 | If you want a "real" C C<open> (see L<open(2)> on your system), then you |
6170680b IZ |
3127 | should use the C<sysopen> function, which involves no such magic (but |
3128 | may use subtly different filemodes than Perl open(), which is mapped | |
3129 | to C fopen()). This is | |
5a964f20 TC |
3130 | another way to protect your filenames from interpretation. For example: |
3131 | ||
3132 | use IO::Handle; | |
3133 | sysopen(HANDLE, $path, O_RDWR|O_CREAT|O_EXCL) | |
3134 | or die "sysopen $path: $!"; | |
3135 | $oldfh = select(HANDLE); $| = 1; select($oldfh); | |
38762f02 | 3136 | print HANDLE "stuff $$\n"; |
5a964f20 TC |
3137 | seek(HANDLE, 0, 0); |
3138 | print "File contains: ", <HANDLE>; | |
3139 | ||
7660c0ab A |
3140 | Using the constructor from the C<IO::Handle> package (or one of its |
3141 | subclasses, such as C<IO::File> or C<IO::Socket>), you can generate anonymous | |
5a964f20 TC |
3142 | filehandles that have the scope of whatever variables hold references to |
3143 | them, and automatically close whenever and however you leave that scope: | |
c07a80fd | 3144 | |
5f05dabc | 3145 | use IO::File; |
5a964f20 | 3146 | #... |
c07a80fd | 3147 | sub read_myfile_munged { |
3148 | my $ALL = shift; | |
5f05dabc | 3149 | my $handle = new IO::File; |
c07a80fd | 3150 | open($handle, "myfile") or die "myfile: $!"; |
3151 | $first = <$handle> | |
3152 | or return (); # Automatically closed here. | |
3153 | mung $first or die "mung failed"; # Or here. | |
3154 | return $first, <$handle> if $ALL; # Or here. | |
3155 | $first; # Or here. | |
3156 | } | |
3157 | ||
b687b08b | 3158 | See L</seek> for some details about mixing reading and writing. |
a0d0e21e LW |
3159 | |
3160 | =item opendir DIRHANDLE,EXPR | |
3161 | ||
19799a22 GS |
3162 | Opens a directory named EXPR for processing by C<readdir>, C<telldir>, |
3163 | C<seekdir>, C<rewinddir>, and C<closedir>. Returns true if successful. | |
a28cd5c9 NT |
3164 | DIRHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used as an indirect |
3165 | dirhandle, usually the real dirhandle name. If DIRHANDLE is an undefined | |
3166 | scalar variable (or array or hash element), the variable is assigned a | |
3167 | reference to a new anonymous dirhandle. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3168 | DIRHANDLEs have their own namespace separate from FILEHANDLEs. |
3169 | ||
3170 | =item ord EXPR | |
3171 | ||
54310121 | 3172 | =item ord |
bbce6d69 | 3173 | |
121910a4 JH |
3174 | Returns the numeric (the native 8-bit encoding, like ASCII or EBCDIC, |
3175 | or Unicode) value of the first character of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, | |
3176 | uses C<$_>. | |
3177 | ||
3178 | For the reverse, see L</chr>. | |
3179 | See L<perlunicode> and L<encoding> for more about Unicode. | |
a0d0e21e | 3180 | |
77ca0c92 LW |
3181 | =item our EXPR |
3182 | ||
307ea6df JH |
3183 | =item our EXPR TYPE |
3184 | ||
1d2de774 | 3185 | =item our EXPR : ATTRS |
9969eac4 | 3186 | |
1d2de774 | 3187 | =item our TYPE EXPR : ATTRS |
307ea6df | 3188 | |
77ca0c92 LW |
3189 | An C<our> declares the listed variables to be valid globals within |
3190 | the enclosing block, file, or C<eval>. That is, it has the same | |
3191 | scoping rules as a "my" declaration, but does not create a local | |
3192 | variable. If more than one value is listed, the list must be placed | |
3193 | in parentheses. The C<our> declaration has no semantic effect unless | |
3194 | "use strict vars" is in effect, in which case it lets you use the | |
3195 | declared global variable without qualifying it with a package name. | |
3196 | (But only within the lexical scope of the C<our> declaration. In this | |
3197 | it differs from "use vars", which is package scoped.) | |
3198 | ||
f472eb5c GS |
3199 | An C<our> declaration declares a global variable that will be visible |
3200 | across its entire lexical scope, even across package boundaries. The | |
3201 | package in which the variable is entered is determined at the point | |
3202 | of the declaration, not at the point of use. This means the following | |
3203 | behavior holds: | |
3204 | ||
3205 | package Foo; | |
3206 | our $bar; # declares $Foo::bar for rest of lexical scope | |
3207 | $bar = 20; | |
3208 | ||
3209 | package Bar; | |
3210 | print $bar; # prints 20 | |
3211 | ||
3212 | Multiple C<our> declarations in the same lexical scope are allowed | |
3213 | if they are in different packages. If they happened to be in the same | |
3214 | package, Perl will emit warnings if you have asked for them. | |
3215 | ||
3216 | use warnings; | |
3217 | package Foo; | |
3218 | our $bar; # declares $Foo::bar for rest of lexical scope | |
3219 | $bar = 20; | |
3220 | ||
3221 | package Bar; | |
3222 | our $bar = 30; # declares $Bar::bar for rest of lexical scope | |
3223 | print $bar; # prints 30 | |
3224 | ||
3225 | our $bar; # emits warning | |
3226 | ||
9969eac4 | 3227 | An C<our> declaration may also have a list of attributes associated |
307ea6df JH |
3228 | with it. |
3229 | ||
1d2de774 JH |
3230 | The exact semantics and interface of TYPE and ATTRS are still |
3231 | evolving. TYPE is currently bound to the use of C<fields> pragma, | |
307ea6df JH |
3232 | and attributes are handled using the C<attributes> pragma, or starting |
3233 | from Perl 5.8.0 also via the C<Attribute::Handlers> module. See | |
3234 | L<perlsub/"Private Variables via my()"> for details, and L<fields>, | |
3235 | L<attributes>, and L<Attribute::Handlers>. | |
3236 | ||
3237 | The only currently recognized C<our()> attribute is C<unique> which | |
3238 | indicates that a single copy of the global is to be used by all | |
3239 | interpreters should the program happen to be running in a | |
3240 | multi-interpreter environment. (The default behaviour would be for | |
3241 | each interpreter to have its own copy of the global.) Examples: | |
9969eac4 | 3242 | |
51d2bbcc JH |
3243 | our @EXPORT : unique = qw(foo); |
3244 | our %EXPORT_TAGS : unique = (bar => [qw(aa bb cc)]); | |
3245 | our $VERSION : unique = "1.00"; | |
9969eac4 | 3246 | |
96fa8c42 | 3247 | Note that this attribute also has the effect of making the global |
72e53bfb JH |
3248 | readonly when the first new interpreter is cloned (for example, |
3249 | when the first new thread is created). | |
96fa8c42 | 3250 | |
9969eac4 BS |
3251 | Multi-interpreter environments can come to being either through the |
3252 | fork() emulation on Windows platforms, or by embedding perl in a | |
51d2bbcc | 3253 | multi-threaded application. The C<unique> attribute does nothing in |
9969eac4 BS |
3254 | all other environments. |
3255 | ||
72982a0c | 3256 | Warning: the current implementation of this attribute operates on the |
20fe557d DM |
3257 | typeglob associated with the variable; this means that C<our $x : unique> |
3258 | also has the effect of C<our @x : unique; our %x : unique>. This may be | |
3259 | subject to change. | |
3260 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
3261 | =item pack TEMPLATE,LIST |
3262 | ||
2b6c5635 GS |
3263 | Takes a LIST of values and converts it into a string using the rules |
3264 | given by the TEMPLATE. The resulting string is the concatenation of | |
3265 | the converted values. Typically, each converted value looks | |
3266 | like its machine-level representation. For example, on 32-bit machines | |
3267 | a converted integer may be represented by a sequence of 4 bytes. | |
3268 | ||
18529408 IZ |
3269 | The TEMPLATE is a sequence of characters that give the order and type |
3270 | of values, as follows: | |
a0d0e21e | 3271 | |
5a929a98 | 3272 | a A string with arbitrary binary data, will be null padded. |
121910a4 JH |
3273 | A A text (ASCII) string, will be space padded. |
3274 | Z A null terminated (ASCIZ) string, will be null padded. | |
5a929a98 | 3275 | |
2b6c5635 GS |
3276 | b A bit string (ascending bit order inside each byte, like vec()). |
3277 | B A bit string (descending bit order inside each byte). | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3278 | h A hex string (low nybble first). |
3279 | H A hex string (high nybble first). | |
3280 | ||
3281 | c A signed char value. | |
a0ed51b3 | 3282 | C An unsigned char value. Only does bytes. See U for Unicode. |
96e4d5b1 | 3283 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3284 | s A signed short value. |
3285 | S An unsigned short value. | |
96e4d5b1 | 3286 | (This 'short' is _exactly_ 16 bits, which may differ from |
851646ae JH |
3287 | what a local C compiler calls 'short'. If you want |
3288 | native-length shorts, use the '!' suffix.) | |
96e4d5b1 | 3289 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3290 | i A signed integer value. |
3291 | I An unsigned integer value. | |
19799a22 | 3292 | (This 'integer' is _at_least_ 32 bits wide. Its exact |
f86cebdf GS |
3293 | size depends on what a local C compiler calls 'int', |
3294 | and may even be larger than the 'long' described in | |
3295 | the next item.) | |
96e4d5b1 | 3296 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3297 | l A signed long value. |
3298 | L An unsigned long value. | |
96e4d5b1 | 3299 | (This 'long' is _exactly_ 32 bits, which may differ from |
851646ae JH |
3300 | what a local C compiler calls 'long'. If you want |
3301 | native-length longs, use the '!' suffix.) | |
a0d0e21e | 3302 | |
5d11dd56 MG |
3303 | n An unsigned short in "network" (big-endian) order. |
3304 | N An unsigned long in "network" (big-endian) order. | |
3305 | v An unsigned short in "VAX" (little-endian) order. | |
3306 | V An unsigned long in "VAX" (little-endian) order. | |
96e4d5b1 | 3307 | (These 'shorts' and 'longs' are _exactly_ 16 bits and |
3308 | _exactly_ 32 bits, respectively.) | |
a0d0e21e | 3309 | |
dae0da7a JH |
3310 | q A signed quad (64-bit) value. |
3311 | Q An unsigned quad value. | |
851646ae JH |
3312 | (Quads are available only if your system supports 64-bit |
3313 | integer values _and_ if Perl has been compiled to support those. | |
dae0da7a JH |
3314 | Causes a fatal error otherwise.) |
3315 | ||
92d41999 JH |
3316 | j A signed integer value (a Perl internal integer, IV). |
3317 | J An unsigned integer value (a Perl internal unsigned integer, UV). | |
3318 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
3319 | f A single-precision float in the native format. |
3320 | d A double-precision float in the native format. | |
3321 | ||
92d41999 JH |
3322 | F A floating point value in the native native format |
3323 | (a Perl internal floating point value, NV). | |
3324 | D A long double-precision float in the native format. | |
3325 | (Long doubles are available only if your system supports long | |
3326 | double values _and_ if Perl has been compiled to support those. | |
3327 | Causes a fatal error otherwise.) | |
3328 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
3329 | p A pointer to a null-terminated string. |
3330 | P A pointer to a structure (fixed-length string). | |
3331 | ||
3332 | u A uuencoded string. | |
ad0029c4 JH |
3333 | U A Unicode character number. Encodes to UTF-8 internally |
3334 | (or UTF-EBCDIC in EBCDIC platforms). | |
a0d0e21e | 3335 | |
96e4d5b1 | 3336 | w A BER compressed integer. Its bytes represent an unsigned |
f86cebdf GS |
3337 | integer in base 128, most significant digit first, with as |
3338 | few digits as possible. Bit eight (the high bit) is set | |
3339 | on each byte except the last. | |
def98dd4 | 3340 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3341 | x A null byte. |
3342 | X Back up a byte. | |
49704364 WL |
3343 | @ Null fill to absolute position, counted from the start of |
3344 | the innermost ()-group. | |
206947d2 | 3345 | ( Start of a ()-group. |
a0d0e21e | 3346 | |
5a929a98 VU |
3347 | The following rules apply: |
3348 | ||
3349 | =over 8 | |
3350 | ||
3351 | =item * | |
3352 | ||
5a964f20 | 3353 | Each letter may optionally be followed by a number giving a repeat |
951ba7fe | 3354 | count. With all types except C<a>, C<A>, C<Z>, C<b>, C<B>, C<h>, |
206947d2 IZ |
3355 | C<H>, C<@>, C<x>, C<X> and C<P> the pack function will gobble up that |
3356 | many values from the LIST. A C<*> for the repeat count means to use | |
3357 | however many items are left, except for C<@>, C<x>, C<X>, where it is | |
3358 | equivalent to C<0>, and C<u>, where it is equivalent to 1 (or 45, what | |
3359 | is the same). A numeric repeat count may optionally be enclosed in | |
3360 | brackets, as in C<pack 'C[80]', @arr>. | |
3361 | ||
3362 | One can replace the numeric repeat count by a template enclosed in brackets; | |
3363 | then the packed length of this template in bytes is used as a count. | |
62f95557 IZ |
3364 | For example, C<x[L]> skips a long (it skips the number of bytes in a long); |
3365 | the template C<$t X[$t] $t> unpack()s twice what $t unpacks. | |
3366 | If the template in brackets contains alignment commands (such as C<x![d]>), | |
3367 | its packed length is calculated as if the start of the template has the maximal | |
3368 | possible alignment. | |
2b6c5635 | 3369 | |
951ba7fe | 3370 | When used with C<Z>, C<*> results in the addition of a trailing null |
2b6c5635 GS |
3371 | byte (so the packed result will be one longer than the byte C<length> |
3372 | of the item). | |
3373 | ||
951ba7fe | 3374 | The repeat count for C<u> is interpreted as the maximal number of bytes |
2b6c5635 | 3375 | to encode per line of output, with 0 and 1 replaced by 45. |
5a929a98 VU |
3376 | |
3377 | =item * | |
3378 | ||
951ba7fe | 3379 | The C<a>, C<A>, and C<Z> types gobble just one value, but pack it as a |
5a929a98 | 3380 | string of length count, padding with nulls or spaces as necessary. When |
951ba7fe GS |
3381 | unpacking, C<A> strips trailing spaces and nulls, C<Z> strips everything |
3382 | after the first null, and C<a> returns data verbatim. When packing, | |
3383 | C<a>, and C<Z> are equivalent. | |
2b6c5635 GS |
3384 | |
3385 | If the value-to-pack is too long, it is truncated. If too long and an | |
951ba7fe GS |
3386 | explicit count is provided, C<Z> packs only C<$count-1> bytes, followed |
3387 | by a null byte. Thus C<Z> always packs a trailing null byte under | |
2b6c5635 | 3388 | all circumstances. |
5a929a98 VU |
3389 | |
3390 | =item * | |
3391 | ||
951ba7fe | 3392 | Likewise, the C<b> and C<B> fields pack a string that many bits long. |
c73032f5 IZ |
3393 | Each byte of the input field of pack() generates 1 bit of the result. |
3394 | Each result bit is based on the least-significant bit of the corresponding | |
3395 | input byte, i.e., on C<ord($byte)%2>. In particular, bytes C<"0"> and | |
3396 | C<"1"> generate bits 0 and 1, as do bytes C<"\0"> and C<"\1">. | |
3397 | ||
3398 | Starting from the beginning of the input string of pack(), each 8-tuple | |
951ba7fe | 3399 | of bytes is converted to 1 byte of output. With format C<b> |
c73032f5 | 3400 | the first byte of the 8-tuple determines the least-significant bit of a |
951ba7fe | 3401 | byte, and with format C<B> it determines the most-significant bit of |
c73032f5 IZ |
3402 | a byte. |
3403 | ||
3404 | If the length of the input string is not exactly divisible by 8, the | |
3405 | remainder is packed as if the input string were padded by null bytes | |
3406 | at the end. Similarly, during unpack()ing the "extra" bits are ignored. | |
3407 | ||
3408 | If the input string of pack() is longer than needed, extra bytes are ignored. | |
2b6c5635 GS |
3409 | A C<*> for the repeat count of pack() means to use all the bytes of |
3410 | the input field. On unpack()ing the bits are converted to a string | |
3411 | of C<"0">s and C<"1">s. | |
5a929a98 VU |
3412 | |
3413 | =item * | |
3414 | ||
951ba7fe | 3415 | The C<h> and C<H> fields pack a string that many nybbles (4-bit groups, |
851646ae | 3416 | representable as hexadecimal digits, 0-9a-f) long. |
5a929a98 | 3417 | |
c73032f5 IZ |
3418 | Each byte of the input field of pack() generates 4 bits of the result. |
3419 | For non-alphabetical bytes the result is based on the 4 least-significant | |
3420 | bits of the input byte, i.e., on C<ord($byte)%16>. In particular, | |
3421 | bytes C<"0"> and C<"1"> generate nybbles 0 and 1, as do bytes | |
3422 | C<"\0"> and C<"\1">. For bytes C<"a".."f"> and C<"A".."F"> the result | |
3423 | is compatible with the usual hexadecimal digits, so that C<"a"> and | |
3424 | C<"A"> both generate the nybble C<0xa==10>. The result for bytes | |
3425 | C<"g".."z"> and C<"G".."Z"> is not well-defined. | |
3426 | ||
3427 | Starting from the beginning of the input string of pack(), each pair | |
951ba7fe | 3428 | of bytes is converted to 1 byte of output. With format C<h> the |
c73032f5 | 3429 | first byte of the pair determines the least-significant nybble of the |
951ba7fe | 3430 | output byte, and with format C<H> it determines the most-significant |
c73032f5 IZ |
3431 | nybble. |
3432 | ||
3433 | If the length of the input string is not even, it behaves as if padded | |
3434 | by a null byte at the end. Similarly, during unpack()ing the "extra" | |
3435 | nybbles are ignored. | |
3436 | ||
3437 | If the input string of pack() is longer than needed, extra bytes are ignored. | |
3438 | A C<*> for the repeat count of pack() means to use all the bytes of | |
3439 | the input field. On unpack()ing the bits are converted to a string | |
3440 | of hexadecimal digits. | |
3441 | ||
5a929a98 VU |
3442 | =item * |
3443 | ||
951ba7fe | 3444 | The C<p> type packs a pointer to a null-terminated string. You are |
5a929a98 VU |
3445 | responsible for ensuring the string is not a temporary value (which can |
3446 | potentially get deallocated before you get around to using the packed result). | |
951ba7fe GS |
3447 | The C<P> type packs a pointer to a structure of the size indicated by the |
3448 | length. A NULL pointer is created if the corresponding value for C<p> or | |
3449 | C<P> is C<undef>, similarly for unpack(). | |
5a929a98 VU |
3450 | |
3451 | =item * | |
3452 | ||
951ba7fe GS |
3453 | The C</> template character allows packing and unpacking of strings where |
3454 | the packed structure contains a byte count followed by the string itself. | |
17f4a12d | 3455 | You write I<length-item>C</>I<string-item>. |
43192e07 | 3456 | |
92d41999 JH |
3457 | The I<length-item> can be any C<pack> template letter, and describes |
3458 | how the length value is packed. The ones likely to be of most use are | |
3459 | integer-packing ones like C<n> (for Java strings), C<w> (for ASN.1 or | |
3460 | SNMP) and C<N> (for Sun XDR). | |
43192e07 | 3461 | |
49704364 WL |
3462 | For C<pack>, the I<string-item> must, at present, be C<"A*">, C<"a*"> or |
3463 | C<"Z*">. For C<unpack> the length of the string is obtained from the | |
3464 | I<length-item>, but if you put in the '*' it will be ignored. For all other | |
3465 | codes, C<unpack> applies the length value to the next item, which must not | |
3466 | have a repeat count. | |
43192e07 | 3467 | |
17f4a12d IZ |
3468 | unpack 'C/a', "\04Gurusamy"; gives 'Guru' |
3469 | unpack 'a3/A* A*', '007 Bond J '; gives (' Bond','J') | |
3470 | pack 'n/a* w/a*','hello,','world'; gives "\000\006hello,\005world" | |
43192e07 IP |
3471 | |
3472 | The I<length-item> is not returned explicitly from C<unpack>. | |
3473 | ||
951ba7fe GS |
3474 | Adding a count to the I<length-item> letter is unlikely to do anything |
3475 | useful, unless that letter is C<A>, C<a> or C<Z>. Packing with a | |
3476 | I<length-item> of C<a> or C<Z> may introduce C<"\000"> characters, | |
43192e07 IP |
3477 | which Perl does not regard as legal in numeric strings. |
3478 | ||
3479 | =item * | |
3480 | ||
951ba7fe GS |
3481 | The integer types C<s>, C<S>, C<l>, and C<L> may be |
3482 | immediately followed by a C<!> suffix to signify native shorts or | |
3483 | longs--as you can see from above for example a bare C<l> does mean | |
851646ae JH |
3484 | exactly 32 bits, the native C<long> (as seen by the local C compiler) |
3485 | may be larger. This is an issue mainly in 64-bit platforms. You can | |
951ba7fe | 3486 | see whether using C<!> makes any difference by |
726ea183 | 3487 | |
4d0c1c44 GS |
3488 | print length(pack("s")), " ", length(pack("s!")), "\n"; |
3489 | print length(pack("l")), " ", length(pack("l!")), "\n"; | |
ef54e1a4 | 3490 | |
951ba7fe GS |
3491 | C<i!> and C<I!> also work but only because of completeness; |
3492 | they are identical to C<i> and C<I>. | |
ef54e1a4 | 3493 | |
19799a22 GS |
3494 | The actual sizes (in bytes) of native shorts, ints, longs, and long |
3495 | longs on the platform where Perl was built are also available via | |
3496 | L<Config>: | |
3497 | ||
3498 | use Config; | |
3499 | print $Config{shortsize}, "\n"; | |
3500 | print $Config{intsize}, "\n"; | |
3501 | print $Config{longsize}, "\n"; | |
3502 | print $Config{longlongsize}, "\n"; | |
ef54e1a4 | 3503 | |
49704364 | 3504 | (The C<$Config{longlongsize}> will be undefined if your system does |
b76cc8ba | 3505 | not support long longs.) |
851646ae | 3506 | |
ef54e1a4 JH |
3507 | =item * |
3508 | ||
92d41999 | 3509 | The integer formats C<s>, C<S>, C<i>, C<I>, C<l>, C<L>, C<j>, and C<J> |
ef54e1a4 JH |
3510 | are inherently non-portable between processors and operating systems |
3511 | because they obey the native byteorder and endianness. For example a | |
82e239e7 | 3512 | 4-byte integer 0x12345678 (305419896 decimal) would be ordered natively |
ef54e1a4 | 3513 | (arranged in and handled by the CPU registers) into bytes as |
61eff3bc | 3514 | |
b35e152f JJ |
3515 | 0x12 0x34 0x56 0x78 # big-endian |
3516 | 0x78 0x56 0x34 0x12 # little-endian | |
61eff3bc | 3517 | |
b84d4f81 JH |
3518 | Basically, the Intel and VAX CPUs are little-endian, while everybody |
3519 | else, for example Motorola m68k/88k, PPC, Sparc, HP PA, Power, and | |
3520 | Cray are big-endian. Alpha and MIPS can be either: Digital/Compaq | |
82e239e7 JH |
3521 | used/uses them in little-endian mode; SGI/Cray uses them in big-endian |
3522 | mode. | |
719a3cf5 | 3523 | |
19799a22 | 3524 | The names `big-endian' and `little-endian' are comic references to |
ef54e1a4 JH |
3525 | the classic "Gulliver's Travels" (via the paper "On Holy Wars and a |
3526 | Plea for Peace" by Danny Cohen, USC/ISI IEN 137, April 1, 1980) and | |
19799a22 | 3527 | the egg-eating habits of the Lilliputians. |
61eff3bc | 3528 | |
140cb37e | 3529 | Some systems may have even weirder byte orders such as |
61eff3bc | 3530 | |
ef54e1a4 JH |
3531 | 0x56 0x78 0x12 0x34 |
3532 | 0x34 0x12 0x78 0x56 | |
61eff3bc | 3533 | |
ef54e1a4 JH |
3534 | You can see your system's preference with |
3535 | ||
3536 | print join(" ", map { sprintf "%#02x", $_ } | |
3537 | unpack("C*",pack("L",0x12345678))), "\n"; | |
3538 | ||
d99ad34e | 3539 | The byteorder on the platform where Perl was built is also available |
726ea183 | 3540 | via L<Config>: |
ef54e1a4 JH |
3541 | |
3542 | use Config; | |
3543 | print $Config{byteorder}, "\n"; | |
3544 | ||
d99ad34e JH |
3545 | Byteorders C<'1234'> and C<'12345678'> are little-endian, C<'4321'> |
3546 | and C<'87654321'> are big-endian. | |
719a3cf5 | 3547 | |
951ba7fe | 3548 | If you want portable packed integers use the formats C<n>, C<N>, |
82e239e7 | 3549 | C<v>, and C<V>, their byte endianness and size are known. |
851646ae | 3550 | See also L<perlport>. |
ef54e1a4 JH |
3551 | |
3552 | =item * | |
3553 | ||
5a929a98 VU |
3554 | Real numbers (floats and doubles) are in the native machine format only; |
3555 | due to the multiplicity of floating formats around, and the lack of a | |
3556 | standard "network" representation, no facility for interchange has been | |
3557 | made. This means that packed floating point data written on one machine | |
3558 | may not be readable on another - even if both use IEEE floating point | |
3559 | arithmetic (as the endian-ness of the memory representation is not part | |
851646ae | 3560 | of the IEEE spec). See also L<perlport>. |
5a929a98 VU |
3561 | |
3562 | Note that Perl uses doubles internally for all numeric calculation, and | |
3563 | converting from double into float and thence back to double again will | |
3564 | lose precision (i.e., C<unpack("f", pack("f", $foo)>) will not in general | |
19799a22 | 3565 | equal $foo). |
5a929a98 | 3566 | |
851646ae JH |
3567 | =item * |
3568 | ||
1e54db1a JH |
3569 | If the pattern begins with a C<U>, the resulting string will be |
3570 | treated as UTF-8-encoded Unicode. You can force UTF-8 encoding on in a | |
3571 | string with an initial C<U0>, and the bytes that follow will be | |
3572 | interpreted as Unicode characters. If you don't want this to happen, | |
3573 | you can begin your pattern with C<C0> (or anything else) to force Perl | |
3574 | not to UTF-8 encode your string, and then follow this with a C<U*> | |
3575 | somewhere in your pattern. | |
036b4402 GS |
3576 | |
3577 | =item * | |
3578 | ||
851646ae | 3579 | You must yourself do any alignment or padding by inserting for example |
9ccd05c0 JH |
3580 | enough C<'x'>es while packing. There is no way to pack() and unpack() |
3581 | could know where the bytes are going to or coming from. Therefore | |
3582 | C<pack> (and C<unpack>) handle their output and input as flat | |
3583 | sequences of bytes. | |
851646ae | 3584 | |
17f4a12d IZ |
3585 | =item * |
3586 | ||
18529408 | 3587 | A ()-group is a sub-TEMPLATE enclosed in parentheses. A group may |
49704364 WL |
3588 | take a repeat count, both as postfix, and for unpack() also via the C</> |
3589 | template character. Within each repetition of a group, positioning with | |
3590 | C<@> starts again at 0. Therefore, the result of | |
3591 | ||
3592 | pack( '@1A((@2A)@3A)', 'a', 'b', 'c' ) | |
3593 | ||
3594 | is the string "\0a\0\0bc". | |
3595 | ||
18529408 IZ |
3596 | |
3597 | =item * | |
3598 | ||
62f95557 IZ |
3599 | C<x> and C<X> accept C<!> modifier. In this case they act as |
3600 | alignment commands: they jump forward/back to the closest position | |
3601 | aligned at a multiple of C<count> bytes. For example, to pack() or | |
3602 | unpack() C's C<struct {char c; double d; char cc[2]}> one may need to | |
3603 | use the template C<C x![d] d C[2]>; this assumes that doubles must be | |
3604 | aligned on the double's size. | |
666f95b9 | 3605 | |
62f95557 IZ |
3606 | For alignment commands C<count> of 0 is equivalent to C<count> of 1; |
3607 | both result in no-ops. | |
666f95b9 | 3608 | |
62f95557 IZ |
3609 | =item * |
3610 | ||
17f4a12d | 3611 | A comment in a TEMPLATE starts with C<#> and goes to the end of line. |
49704364 WL |
3612 | White space may be used to separate pack codes from each other, but |
3613 | a C<!> modifier and a repeat count must follow immediately. | |
17f4a12d | 3614 | |
2b6c5635 GS |
3615 | =item * |
3616 | ||
3617 | If TEMPLATE requires more arguments to pack() than actually given, pack() | |
3618 | assumes additional C<""> arguments. If TEMPLATE requires less arguments | |
3619 | to pack() than actually given, extra arguments are ignored. | |
3620 | ||
5a929a98 | 3621 | =back |
a0d0e21e LW |
3622 | |
3623 | Examples: | |
3624 | ||
a0ed51b3 | 3625 | $foo = pack("CCCC",65,66,67,68); |
a0d0e21e | 3626 | # foo eq "ABCD" |
a0ed51b3 | 3627 | $foo = pack("C4",65,66,67,68); |
a0d0e21e | 3628 | # same thing |
a0ed51b3 LW |
3629 | $foo = pack("U4",0x24b6,0x24b7,0x24b8,0x24b9); |
3630 | # same thing with Unicode circled letters | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3631 | |
3632 | $foo = pack("ccxxcc",65,66,67,68); | |
3633 | # foo eq "AB\0\0CD" | |
3634 | ||
9ccd05c0 JH |
3635 | # note: the above examples featuring "C" and "c" are true |
3636 | # only on ASCII and ASCII-derived systems such as ISO Latin 1 | |
3637 | # and UTF-8. In EBCDIC the first example would be | |
3638 | # $foo = pack("CCCC",193,194,195,196); | |
3639 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
3640 | $foo = pack("s2",1,2); |
3641 | # "\1\0\2\0" on little-endian | |
3642 | # "\0\1\0\2" on big-endian | |
3643 | ||
3644 | $foo = pack("a4","abcd","x","y","z"); | |
3645 | # "abcd" | |
3646 | ||
3647 | $foo = pack("aaaa","abcd","x","y","z"); | |
3648 | # "axyz" | |
3649 | ||
3650 | $foo = pack("a14","abcdefg"); | |
3651 | # "abcdefg\0\0\0\0\0\0\0" | |
3652 | ||
3653 | $foo = pack("i9pl", gmtime); | |
3654 | # a real struct tm (on my system anyway) | |
3655 | ||
5a929a98 VU |
3656 | $utmp_template = "Z8 Z8 Z16 L"; |
3657 | $utmp = pack($utmp_template, @utmp1); | |
3658 | # a struct utmp (BSDish) | |
3659 | ||
3660 | @utmp2 = unpack($utmp_template, $utmp); | |
3661 | # "@utmp1" eq "@utmp2" | |
3662 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
3663 | sub bintodec { |
3664 | unpack("N", pack("B32", substr("0" x 32 . shift, -32))); | |
3665 | } | |
3666 | ||
851646ae JH |
3667 | $foo = pack('sx2l', 12, 34); |
3668 | # short 12, two zero bytes padding, long 34 | |
3669 | $bar = pack('s@4l', 12, 34); | |
3670 | # short 12, zero fill to position 4, long 34 | |
3671 | # $foo eq $bar | |
3672 | ||
5a929a98 | 3673 | The same template may generally also be used in unpack(). |
a0d0e21e | 3674 | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
3675 | =item package NAMESPACE |
3676 | ||
b76cc8ba | 3677 | =item package |
d6217f1e | 3678 | |
cb1a09d0 | 3679 | Declares the compilation unit as being in the given namespace. The scope |
2b5ab1e7 | 3680 | of the package declaration is from the declaration itself through the end |
19799a22 | 3681 | of the enclosing block, file, or eval (the same as the C<my> operator). |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
3682 | All further unqualified dynamic identifiers will be in this namespace. |
3683 | A package statement affects only dynamic variables--including those | |
19799a22 GS |
3684 | you've used C<local> on--but I<not> lexical variables, which are created |
3685 | with C<my>. Typically it would be the first declaration in a file to | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
3686 | be included by the C<require> or C<use> operator. You can switch into a |
3687 | package in more than one place; it merely influences which symbol table | |
3688 | is used by the compiler for the rest of that block. You can refer to | |
3689 | variables and filehandles in other packages by prefixing the identifier | |
3690 | with the package name and a double colon: C<$Package::Variable>. | |
3691 | If the package name is null, the C<main> package as assumed. That is, | |
3692 | C<$::sail> is equivalent to C<$main::sail> (as well as to C<$main'sail>, | |
3693 | still seen in older code). | |
cb1a09d0 | 3694 | |
5a964f20 | 3695 | If NAMESPACE is omitted, then there is no current package, and all |
f2c0fa37 RH |
3696 | identifiers must be fully qualified or lexicals. However, you are |
3697 | strongly advised not to make use of this feature. Its use can cause | |
3698 | unexpected behaviour, even crashing some versions of Perl. It is | |
3699 | deprecated, and will be removed from a future release. | |
5a964f20 | 3700 | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
3701 | See L<perlmod/"Packages"> for more information about packages, modules, |
3702 | and classes. See L<perlsub> for other scoping issues. | |
3703 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
3704 | =item pipe READHANDLE,WRITEHANDLE |
3705 | ||
3706 | Opens a pair of connected pipes like the corresponding system call. | |
3707 | Note that if you set up a loop of piped processes, deadlock can occur | |
3708 | unless you are very careful. In addition, note that Perl's pipes use | |
9124316e | 3709 | IO buffering, so you may need to set C<$|> to flush your WRITEHANDLE |
a0d0e21e LW |
3710 | after each command, depending on the application. |
3711 | ||
7e1af8bc | 3712 | See L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>, and L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication"> |
4633a7c4 LW |
3713 | for examples of such things. |
3714 | ||
4771b018 GS |
3715 | On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will be set |
3716 | for the newly opened file descriptors as determined by the value of $^F. | |
3717 | See L<perlvar/$^F>. | |
3718 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
3719 | =item pop ARRAY |
3720 | ||
54310121 | 3721 | =item pop |
28757baa | 3722 | |
a0d0e21e | 3723 | Pops and returns the last value of the array, shortening the array by |
19799a22 | 3724 | one element. Has an effect similar to |
a0d0e21e | 3725 | |
19799a22 | 3726 | $ARRAY[$#ARRAY--] |
a0d0e21e | 3727 | |
19799a22 GS |
3728 | If there are no elements in the array, returns the undefined value |
3729 | (although this may happen at other times as well). If ARRAY is | |
3730 | omitted, pops the C<@ARGV> array in the main program, and the C<@_> | |
3731 | array in subroutines, just like C<shift>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3732 | |
3733 | =item pos SCALAR | |
3734 | ||
54310121 | 3735 | =item pos |
bbce6d69 | 3736 | |
4633a7c4 | 3737 | Returns the offset of where the last C<m//g> search left off for the variable |
d6217f1e | 3738 | in question (C<$_> is used when the variable is not specified). May be |
44a8e56a | 3739 | modified to change that offset. Such modification will also influence |
3740 | the C<\G> zero-width assertion in regular expressions. See L<perlre> and | |
3741 | L<perlop>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3742 | |
3743 | =item print FILEHANDLE LIST | |
3744 | ||
3745 | =item print LIST | |
3746 | ||
3747 | =item print | |
3748 | ||
19799a22 GS |
3749 | Prints a string or a list of strings. Returns true if successful. |
3750 | FILEHANDLE may be a scalar variable name, in which case the variable | |
3751 | contains the name of or a reference to the filehandle, thus introducing | |
3752 | one level of indirection. (NOTE: If FILEHANDLE is a variable and | |
3753 | the next token is a term, it may be misinterpreted as an operator | |
2b5ab1e7 | 3754 | unless you interpose a C<+> or put parentheses around the arguments.) |
19799a22 GS |
3755 | If FILEHANDLE is omitted, prints by default to standard output (or |
3756 | to the last selected output channel--see L</select>). If LIST is | |
3757 | also omitted, prints C<$_> to the currently selected output channel. | |
3758 | To set the default output channel to something other than STDOUT | |
3759 | use the select operation. The current value of C<$,> (if any) is | |
3760 | printed between each LIST item. The current value of C<$\> (if | |
3761 | any) is printed after the entire LIST has been printed. Because | |
3762 | print takes a LIST, anything in the LIST is evaluated in list | |
3763 | context, and any subroutine that you call will have one or more of | |
3764 | its expressions evaluated in list context. Also be careful not to | |
3765 | follow the print keyword with a left parenthesis unless you want | |
3766 | the corresponding right parenthesis to terminate the arguments to | |
3767 | the print--interpose a C<+> or put parentheses around all the | |
3768 | arguments. | |
a0d0e21e | 3769 | |
4633a7c4 | 3770 | Note that if you're storing FILEHANDLES in an array or other expression, |
da0045b7 | 3771 | you will have to use a block returning its value instead: |
4633a7c4 LW |
3772 | |
3773 | print { $files[$i] } "stuff\n"; | |
3774 | print { $OK ? STDOUT : STDERR } "stuff\n"; | |
3775 | ||
5f05dabc | 3776 | =item printf FILEHANDLE FORMAT, LIST |
a0d0e21e | 3777 | |
5f05dabc | 3778 | =item printf FORMAT, LIST |
a0d0e21e | 3779 | |
7660c0ab | 3780 | Equivalent to C<print FILEHANDLE sprintf(FORMAT, LIST)>, except that C<$\> |
a3cb178b | 3781 | (the output record separator) is not appended. The first argument |
f39758bf GJ |
3782 | of the list will be interpreted as the C<printf> format. See C<sprintf> |
3783 | for an explanation of the format argument. If C<use locale> is in effect, | |
3784 | the character used for the decimal point in formatted real numbers is | |
3785 | affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale. See L<perllocale>. | |
a0d0e21e | 3786 | |
19799a22 GS |
3787 | Don't fall into the trap of using a C<printf> when a simple |
3788 | C<print> would do. The C<print> is more efficient and less | |
28757baa | 3789 | error prone. |
3790 | ||
da0045b7 | 3791 | =item prototype FUNCTION |
3792 | ||
3793 | Returns the prototype of a function as a string (or C<undef> if the | |
5f05dabc | 3794 | function has no prototype). FUNCTION is a reference to, or the name of, |
3795 | the function whose prototype you want to retrieve. | |
da0045b7 | 3796 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
3797 | If FUNCTION is a string starting with C<CORE::>, the rest is taken as a |
3798 | name for Perl builtin. If the builtin is not I<overridable> (such as | |
ab4f32c2 | 3799 | C<qw//>) or its arguments cannot be expressed by a prototype (such as |
19799a22 | 3800 | C<system>) returns C<undef> because the builtin does not really behave |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
3801 | like a Perl function. Otherwise, the string describing the equivalent |
3802 | prototype is returned. | |
b6c543e3 | 3803 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3804 | =item push ARRAY,LIST |
3805 | ||
3806 | Treats ARRAY as a stack, and pushes the values of LIST | |
3807 | onto the end of ARRAY. The length of ARRAY increases by the length of | |
3808 | LIST. Has the same effect as | |
3809 | ||
3810 | for $value (LIST) { | |
3811 | $ARRAY[++$#ARRAY] = $value; | |
3812 | } | |
3813 | ||
3814 | but is more efficient. Returns the new number of elements in the array. | |
3815 | ||
3816 | =item q/STRING/ | |
3817 | ||
3818 | =item qq/STRING/ | |
3819 | ||
8782bef2 GB |
3820 | =item qr/STRING/ |
3821 | ||
945c54fd | 3822 | =item qx/STRING/ |
a0d0e21e LW |
3823 | |
3824 | =item qw/STRING/ | |
3825 | ||
4b6a7270 | 3826 | Generalized quotes. See L<perlop/"Regexp Quote-Like Operators">. |
a0d0e21e LW |
3827 | |
3828 | =item quotemeta EXPR | |
3829 | ||
54310121 | 3830 | =item quotemeta |
bbce6d69 | 3831 | |
36bbe248 | 3832 | Returns the value of EXPR with all non-"word" |
a034a98d DD |
3833 | characters backslashed. (That is, all characters not matching |
3834 | C</[A-Za-z_0-9]/> will be preceded by a backslash in the | |
3835 | returned string, regardless of any locale settings.) | |
3836 | This is the internal function implementing | |
7660c0ab | 3837 | the C<\Q> escape in double-quoted strings. |
a0d0e21e | 3838 | |
7660c0ab | 3839 | If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. |
bbce6d69 | 3840 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3841 | =item rand EXPR |
3842 | ||
3843 | =item rand | |
3844 | ||
7660c0ab | 3845 | Returns a random fractional number greater than or equal to C<0> and less |
3e3baf6d | 3846 | than the value of EXPR. (EXPR should be positive.) If EXPR is |
351f3254 NC |
3847 | omitted, the value C<1> is used. Currently EXPR with the value C<0> is |
3848 | also special-cased as C<1> - this has not been documented before perl 5.8.0 | |
3849 | and is subject to change in future versions of perl. Automatically calls | |
3850 | C<srand> unless C<srand> has already been called. See also C<srand>. | |
a0d0e21e | 3851 | |
6063ba18 WM |
3852 | Apply C<int()> to the value returned by C<rand()> if you want random |
3853 | integers instead of random fractional numbers. For example, | |
3854 | ||
3855 | int(rand(10)) | |
3856 | ||
3857 | returns a random integer between C<0> and C<9>, inclusive. | |
3858 | ||
2f9daede | 3859 | (Note: If your rand function consistently returns numbers that are too |
a0d0e21e | 3860 | large or too small, then your version of Perl was probably compiled |
2f9daede | 3861 | with the wrong number of RANDBITS.) |
a0d0e21e LW |
3862 | |
3863 | =item read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET | |
3864 | ||
3865 | =item read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH | |
3866 | ||
9124316e JH |
3867 | Attempts to read LENGTH I<characters> of data into variable SCALAR |
3868 | from the specified FILEHANDLE. Returns the number of characters | |
b5fe5ca2 | 3869 | actually read, C<0> at end of file, or undef if there was an error (in |
b49f3be6 SG |
3870 | the latter case C<$!> is also set). SCALAR will be grown or shrunk |
3871 | so that the last character actually read is the last character of the | |
3872 | scalar after the read. | |
3873 | ||
3874 | An OFFSET may be specified to place the read data at some place in the | |
3875 | string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies | |
3876 | placement at that many characters counting backwards from the end of | |
3877 | the string. A positive OFFSET greater than the length of SCALAR | |
3878 | results in the string being padded to the required size with C<"\0"> | |
3879 | bytes before the result of the read is appended. | |
3880 | ||
3881 | The call is actually implemented in terms of either Perl's or system's | |
3882 | fread() call. To get a true read(2) system call, see C<sysread>. | |
9124316e JH |
3883 | |
3884 | Note the I<characters>: depending on the status of the filehandle, | |
3885 | either (8-bit) bytes or characters are read. By default all | |
3886 | filehandles operate on bytes, but for example if the filehandle has | |
fae2c0fb | 3887 | been opened with the C<:utf8> I/O layer (see L</open>, and the C<open> |
1d714267 JH |
3888 | pragma, L<open>), the I/O will operate on UTF-8 encoded Unicode |
3889 | characters, not bytes. Similarly for the C<:encoding> pragma: | |
3890 | in that case pretty much any characters can be read. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3891 | |
3892 | =item readdir DIRHANDLE | |
3893 | ||
19799a22 | 3894 | Returns the next directory entry for a directory opened by C<opendir>. |
5a964f20 | 3895 | If used in list context, returns all the rest of the entries in the |
a0d0e21e | 3896 | directory. If there are no more entries, returns an undefined value in |
5a964f20 | 3897 | scalar context or a null list in list context. |
a0d0e21e | 3898 | |
19799a22 | 3899 | If you're planning to filetest the return values out of a C<readdir>, you'd |
5f05dabc | 3900 | better prepend the directory in question. Otherwise, because we didn't |
19799a22 | 3901 | C<chdir> there, it would have been testing the wrong file. |
cb1a09d0 AD |
3902 | |
3903 | opendir(DIR, $some_dir) || die "can't opendir $some_dir: $!"; | |
3904 | @dots = grep { /^\./ && -f "$some_dir/$_" } readdir(DIR); | |
3905 | closedir DIR; | |
3906 | ||
84902520 TB |
3907 | =item readline EXPR |
3908 | ||
d4679214 JH |
3909 | Reads from the filehandle whose typeglob is contained in EXPR. In scalar |
3910 | context, each call reads and returns the next line, until end-of-file is | |
3911 | reached, whereupon the subsequent call returns undef. In list context, | |
3912 | reads until end-of-file is reached and returns a list of lines. Note that | |
3913 | the notion of "line" used here is however you may have defined it | |
3914 | with C<$/> or C<$INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR>). See L<perlvar/"$/">. | |
fbad3eb5 | 3915 | |
2b5ab1e7 | 3916 | When C<$/> is set to C<undef>, when readline() is in scalar |
449bc448 GS |
3917 | context (i.e. file slurp mode), and when an empty file is read, it |
3918 | returns C<''> the first time, followed by C<undef> subsequently. | |
fbad3eb5 | 3919 | |
61eff3bc JH |
3920 | This is the internal function implementing the C<< <EXPR> >> |
3921 | operator, but you can use it directly. The C<< <EXPR> >> | |
84902520 TB |
3922 | operator is discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">. |
3923 | ||
5a964f20 TC |
3924 | $line = <STDIN>; |
3925 | $line = readline(*STDIN); # same thing | |
3926 | ||
00cb5da1 CW |
3927 | If readline encounters an operating system error, C<$!> will be set with the |
3928 | corresponding error message. It can be helpful to check C<$!> when you are | |
3929 | reading from filehandles you don't trust, such as a tty or a socket. The | |
3930 | following example uses the operator form of C<readline>, and takes the necessary | |
3931 | steps to ensure that C<readline> was successful. | |
3932 | ||
3933 | for (;;) { | |
3934 | undef $!; | |
3935 | unless (defined( $line = <> )) { | |
3936 | die $! if $!; | |
3937 | last; # reached EOF | |
3938 | } | |
3939 | # ... | |
3940 | } | |
3941 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
3942 | =item readlink EXPR |
3943 | ||
54310121 | 3944 | =item readlink |
bbce6d69 | 3945 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3946 | Returns the value of a symbolic link, if symbolic links are |
3947 | implemented. If not, gives a fatal error. If there is some system | |
184e9718 | 3948 | error, returns the undefined value and sets C<$!> (errno). If EXPR is |
7660c0ab | 3949 | omitted, uses C<$_>. |
a0d0e21e | 3950 | |
84902520 TB |
3951 | =item readpipe EXPR |
3952 | ||
5a964f20 | 3953 | EXPR is executed as a system command. |
84902520 TB |
3954 | The collected standard output of the command is returned. |
3955 | In scalar context, it comes back as a single (potentially | |
3956 | multi-line) string. In list context, returns a list of lines | |
7660c0ab | 3957 | (however you've defined lines with C<$/> or C<$INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR>). |
84902520 TB |
3958 | This is the internal function implementing the C<qx/EXPR/> |
3959 | operator, but you can use it directly. The C<qx/EXPR/> | |
3960 | operator is discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">. | |
3961 | ||
399388f4 | 3962 | =item recv SOCKET,SCALAR,LENGTH,FLAGS |
a0d0e21e | 3963 | |
9124316e JH |
3964 | Receives a message on a socket. Attempts to receive LENGTH characters |
3965 | of data into variable SCALAR from the specified SOCKET filehandle. | |
3966 | SCALAR will be grown or shrunk to the length actually read. Takes the | |
3967 | same flags as the system call of the same name. Returns the address | |
3968 | of the sender if SOCKET's protocol supports this; returns an empty | |
3969 | string otherwise. If there's an error, returns the undefined value. | |
3970 | This call is actually implemented in terms of recvfrom(2) system call. | |
3971 | See L<perlipc/"UDP: Message Passing"> for examples. | |
3972 | ||
3973 | Note the I<characters>: depending on the status of the socket, either | |
3974 | (8-bit) bytes or characters are received. By default all sockets | |
3975 | operate on bytes, but for example if the socket has been changed using | |
fae2c0fb | 3976 | binmode() to operate with the C<:utf8> I/O layer (see the C<open> |
1d714267 JH |
3977 | pragma, L<open>), the I/O will operate on UTF-8 encoded Unicode |
3978 | characters, not bytes. Similarly for the C<:encoding> pragma: | |
3979 | in that case pretty much any characters can be read. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
3980 | |
3981 | =item redo LABEL | |
3982 | ||
3983 | =item redo | |
3984 | ||
3985 | The C<redo> command restarts the loop block without evaluating the | |
98293880 | 3986 | conditional again. The C<continue> block, if any, is not executed. If |
a0d0e21e LW |
3987 | the LABEL is omitted, the command refers to the innermost enclosing |
3988 | loop. This command is normally used by programs that want to lie to | |
3989 | themselves about what was just input: | |
3990 | ||
3991 | # a simpleminded Pascal comment stripper | |
3992 | # (warning: assumes no { or } in strings) | |
4633a7c4 | 3993 | LINE: while (<STDIN>) { |
a0d0e21e LW |
3994 | while (s|({.*}.*){.*}|$1 |) {} |
3995 | s|{.*}| |; | |
3996 | if (s|{.*| |) { | |
3997 | $front = $_; | |
3998 | while (<STDIN>) { | |
3999 | if (/}/) { # end of comment? | |
5a964f20 | 4000 | s|^|$front\{|; |
4633a7c4 | 4001 | redo LINE; |
a0d0e21e LW |
4002 | } |
4003 | } | |
4004 | } | |
4005 | print; | |
4006 | } | |
4007 | ||
4968c1e4 | 4008 | C<redo> cannot be used to retry a block which returns a value such as |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
4009 | C<eval {}>, C<sub {}> or C<do {}>, and should not be used to exit |
4010 | a grep() or map() operation. | |
4968c1e4 | 4011 | |
6c1372ed GS |
4012 | Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop |
4013 | that executes once. Thus C<redo> inside such a block will effectively | |
4014 | turn it into a looping construct. | |
4015 | ||
98293880 | 4016 | See also L</continue> for an illustration of how C<last>, C<next>, and |
1d2dff63 GS |
4017 | C<redo> work. |
4018 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4019 | =item ref EXPR |
4020 | ||
54310121 | 4021 | =item ref |
bbce6d69 | 4022 | |
8a2e0804 A |
4023 | Returns a non-empty string if EXPR is a reference, the empty |
4024 | string otherwise. If EXPR | |
7660c0ab | 4025 | is not specified, C<$_> will be used. The value returned depends on the |
bbce6d69 | 4026 | type of thing the reference is a reference to. |
a0d0e21e LW |
4027 | Builtin types include: |
4028 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4029 | SCALAR |
4030 | ARRAY | |
4031 | HASH | |
4032 | CODE | |
19799a22 | 4033 | REF |
a0d0e21e | 4034 | GLOB |
19799a22 | 4035 | LVALUE |
a0d0e21e | 4036 | |
54310121 | 4037 | If the referenced object has been blessed into a package, then that package |
19799a22 | 4038 | name is returned instead. You can think of C<ref> as a C<typeof> operator. |
a0d0e21e LW |
4039 | |
4040 | if (ref($r) eq "HASH") { | |
aa689395 | 4041 | print "r is a reference to a hash.\n"; |
54310121 | 4042 | } |
2b5ab1e7 | 4043 | unless (ref($r)) { |
a0d0e21e | 4044 | print "r is not a reference at all.\n"; |
54310121 | 4045 | } |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
4046 | if (UNIVERSAL::isa($r, "HASH")) { # for subclassing |
4047 | print "r is a reference to something that isa hash.\n"; | |
b76cc8ba | 4048 | } |
a0d0e21e LW |
4049 | |
4050 | See also L<perlref>. | |
4051 | ||
4052 | =item rename OLDNAME,NEWNAME | |
4053 | ||
19799a22 GS |
4054 | Changes the name of a file; an existing file NEWNAME will be |
4055 | clobbered. Returns true for success, false otherwise. | |
4056 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
4057 | Behavior of this function varies wildly depending on your system |
4058 | implementation. For example, it will usually not work across file system | |
4059 | boundaries, even though the system I<mv> command sometimes compensates | |
4060 | for this. Other restrictions include whether it works on directories, | |
4061 | open files, or pre-existing files. Check L<perlport> and either the | |
4062 | rename(2) manpage or equivalent system documentation for details. | |
a0d0e21e | 4063 | |
16070b82 GS |
4064 | =item require VERSION |
4065 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4066 | =item require EXPR |
4067 | ||
4068 | =item require | |
4069 | ||
3b825e41 RK |
4070 | Demands a version of Perl specified by VERSION, or demands some semantics |
4071 | specified by EXPR or by C<$_> if EXPR is not supplied. | |
44dcb63b | 4072 | |
3b825e41 RK |
4073 | VERSION may be either a numeric argument such as 5.006, which will be |
4074 | compared to C<$]>, or a literal of the form v5.6.1, which will be compared | |
4075 | to C<$^V> (aka $PERL_VERSION). A fatal error is produced at run time if | |
4076 | VERSION is greater than the version of the current Perl interpreter. | |
4077 | Compare with L</use>, which can do a similar check at compile time. | |
4078 | ||
4079 | Specifying VERSION as a literal of the form v5.6.1 should generally be | |
4080 | avoided, because it leads to misleading error messages under earlier | |
4081 | versions of Perl which do not support this syntax. The equivalent numeric | |
4082 | version should be used instead. | |
44dcb63b | 4083 | |
dd629d5b GS |
4084 | require v5.6.1; # run time version check |
4085 | require 5.6.1; # ditto | |
3b825e41 | 4086 | require 5.006_001; # ditto; preferred for backwards compatibility |
a0d0e21e LW |
4087 | |
4088 | Otherwise, demands that a library file be included if it hasn't already | |
4089 | been included. The file is included via the do-FILE mechanism, which is | |
20907158 AMS |
4090 | essentially just a variety of C<eval>. Has semantics similar to the |
4091 | following subroutine: | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4092 | |
4093 | sub require { | |
20907158 AMS |
4094 | my ($filename) = @_; |
4095 | if (exists $INC{$filename}) { | |
4096 | return 1 if $INC{$filename}; | |
4097 | die "Compilation failed in require"; | |
4098 | } | |
4099 | my ($realfilename,$result); | |
4100 | ITER: { | |
4101 | foreach $prefix (@INC) { | |
4102 | $realfilename = "$prefix/$filename"; | |
4103 | if (-f $realfilename) { | |
4104 | $INC{$filename} = $realfilename; | |
4105 | $result = do $realfilename; | |
4106 | last ITER; | |
4107 | } | |
4108 | } | |
4109 | die "Can't find $filename in \@INC"; | |
4110 | } | |
4111 | if ($@) { | |
4112 | $INC{$filename} = undef; | |
4113 | die $@; | |
4114 | } elsif (!$result) { | |
4115 | delete $INC{$filename}; | |
4116 | die "$filename did not return true value"; | |
4117 | } else { | |
4118 | return $result; | |
4119 | } | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4120 | } |
4121 | ||
4122 | Note that the file will not be included twice under the same specified | |
a12755f0 SB |
4123 | name. |
4124 | ||
4125 | The file must return true as the last statement to indicate | |
a0d0e21e | 4126 | successful execution of any initialization code, so it's customary to |
19799a22 GS |
4127 | end such a file with C<1;> unless you're sure it'll return true |
4128 | otherwise. But it's better just to put the C<1;>, in case you add more | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4129 | statements. |
4130 | ||
54310121 | 4131 | If EXPR is a bareword, the require assumes a "F<.pm>" extension and |
da0045b7 | 4132 | replaces "F<::>" with "F</>" in the filename for you, |
54310121 | 4133 | to make it easy to load standard modules. This form of loading of |
a0d0e21e LW |
4134 | modules does not risk altering your namespace. |
4135 | ||
ee580363 GS |
4136 | In other words, if you try this: |
4137 | ||
b76cc8ba | 4138 | require Foo::Bar; # a splendid bareword |
ee580363 | 4139 | |
b76cc8ba | 4140 | The require function will actually look for the "F<Foo/Bar.pm>" file in the |
7660c0ab | 4141 | directories specified in the C<@INC> array. |
ee580363 | 4142 | |
5a964f20 | 4143 | But if you try this: |
ee580363 GS |
4144 | |
4145 | $class = 'Foo::Bar'; | |
f86cebdf | 4146 | require $class; # $class is not a bareword |
5a964f20 | 4147 | #or |
f86cebdf | 4148 | require "Foo::Bar"; # not a bareword because of the "" |
ee580363 | 4149 | |
b76cc8ba | 4150 | The require function will look for the "F<Foo::Bar>" file in the @INC array and |
19799a22 | 4151 | will complain about not finding "F<Foo::Bar>" there. In this case you can do: |
ee580363 GS |
4152 | |
4153 | eval "require $class"; | |
4154 | ||
662cc546 CW |
4155 | Now that you understand how C<require> looks for files in the case of |
4156 | a bareword argument, there is a little extra functionality going on | |
4157 | behind the scenes. Before C<require> looks for a "F<.pm>" extension, | |
4158 | it will first look for a filename with a "F<.pmc>" extension. A file | |
4159 | with this extension is assumed to be Perl bytecode generated by | |
4160 | L<B::Bytecode|B::Bytecode>. If this file is found, and it's modification | |
4161 | time is newer than a coinciding "F<.pm>" non-compiled file, it will be | |
4162 | loaded in place of that non-compiled file ending in a "F<.pm>" extension. | |
4163 | ||
d54b56d5 RGS |
4164 | You can also insert hooks into the import facility, by putting directly |
4165 | Perl code into the @INC array. There are three forms of hooks: subroutine | |
4166 | references, array references and blessed objects. | |
4167 | ||
4168 | Subroutine references are the simplest case. When the inclusion system | |
4169 | walks through @INC and encounters a subroutine, this subroutine gets | |
4170 | called with two parameters, the first being a reference to itself, and the | |
4171 | second the name of the file to be included (e.g. "F<Foo/Bar.pm>"). The | |
4172 | subroutine should return C<undef> or a filehandle, from which the file to | |
4173 | include will be read. If C<undef> is returned, C<require> will look at | |
4174 | the remaining elements of @INC. | |
4175 | ||
4176 | If the hook is an array reference, its first element must be a subroutine | |
4177 | reference. This subroutine is called as above, but the first parameter is | |
4178 | the array reference. This enables to pass indirectly some arguments to | |
4179 | the subroutine. | |
4180 | ||
4181 | In other words, you can write: | |
4182 | ||
4183 | push @INC, \&my_sub; | |
4184 | sub my_sub { | |
4185 | my ($coderef, $filename) = @_; # $coderef is \&my_sub | |
4186 | ... | |
4187 | } | |
4188 | ||
4189 | or: | |
4190 | ||
4191 | push @INC, [ \&my_sub, $x, $y, ... ]; | |
4192 | sub my_sub { | |
4193 | my ($arrayref, $filename) = @_; | |
4194 | # Retrieve $x, $y, ... | |
4195 | my @parameters = @$arrayref[1..$#$arrayref]; | |
4196 | ... | |
4197 | } | |
4198 | ||
4199 | If the hook is an object, it must provide an INC method, that will be | |
4200 | called as above, the first parameter being the object itself. (Note that | |
4201 | you must fully qualify the sub's name, as it is always forced into package | |
4202 | C<main>.) Here is a typical code layout: | |
4203 | ||
4204 | # In Foo.pm | |
4205 | package Foo; | |
4206 | sub new { ... } | |
4207 | sub Foo::INC { | |
4208 | my ($self, $filename) = @_; | |
4209 | ... | |
4210 | } | |
4211 | ||
4212 | # In the main program | |
4213 | push @INC, new Foo(...); | |
4214 | ||
9ae8cd5b RGS |
4215 | Note that these hooks are also permitted to set the %INC entry |
4216 | corresponding to the files they have loaded. See L<perlvar/%INC>. | |
4217 | ||
ee580363 | 4218 | For a yet-more-powerful import facility, see L</use> and L<perlmod>. |
a0d0e21e LW |
4219 | |
4220 | =item reset EXPR | |
4221 | ||
4222 | =item reset | |
4223 | ||
4224 | Generally used in a C<continue> block at the end of a loop to clear | |
7660c0ab | 4225 | variables and reset C<??> searches so that they work again. The |
a0d0e21e LW |
4226 | expression is interpreted as a list of single characters (hyphens |
4227 | allowed for ranges). All variables and arrays beginning with one of | |
4228 | those letters are reset to their pristine state. If the expression is | |
7660c0ab | 4229 | omitted, one-match searches (C<?pattern?>) are reset to match again. Resets |
5f05dabc | 4230 | only variables or searches in the current package. Always returns |
a0d0e21e LW |
4231 | 1. Examples: |
4232 | ||
4233 | reset 'X'; # reset all X variables | |
4234 | reset 'a-z'; # reset lower case variables | |
2b5ab1e7 | 4235 | reset; # just reset ?one-time? searches |
a0d0e21e | 4236 | |
7660c0ab | 4237 | Resetting C<"A-Z"> is not recommended because you'll wipe out your |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
4238 | C<@ARGV> and C<@INC> arrays and your C<%ENV> hash. Resets only package |
4239 | variables--lexical variables are unaffected, but they clean themselves | |
4240 | up on scope exit anyway, so you'll probably want to use them instead. | |
4241 | See L</my>. | |
a0d0e21e | 4242 | |
54310121 | 4243 | =item return EXPR |
4244 | ||
4245 | =item return | |
4246 | ||
b76cc8ba | 4247 | Returns from a subroutine, C<eval>, or C<do FILE> with the value |
5a964f20 | 4248 | given in EXPR. Evaluation of EXPR may be in list, scalar, or void |
54310121 | 4249 | context, depending on how the return value will be used, and the context |
19799a22 | 4250 | may vary from one execution to the next (see C<wantarray>). If no EXPR |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
4251 | is given, returns an empty list in list context, the undefined value in |
4252 | scalar context, and (of course) nothing at all in a void context. | |
a0d0e21e | 4253 | |
d1be9408 | 4254 | (Note that in the absence of an explicit C<return>, a subroutine, eval, |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
4255 | or do FILE will automatically return the value of the last expression |
4256 | evaluated.) | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4257 | |
4258 | =item reverse LIST | |
4259 | ||
5a964f20 TC |
4260 | In list context, returns a list value consisting of the elements |
4261 | of LIST in the opposite order. In scalar context, concatenates the | |
2b5ab1e7 | 4262 | elements of LIST and returns a string value with all characters |
a0ed51b3 | 4263 | in the opposite order. |
4633a7c4 | 4264 | |
2f9daede | 4265 | print reverse <>; # line tac, last line first |
4633a7c4 | 4266 | |
2f9daede | 4267 | undef $/; # for efficiency of <> |
a0ed51b3 | 4268 | print scalar reverse <>; # character tac, last line tsrif |
2f9daede | 4269 | |
2d713cbd RGS |
4270 | Used without arguments in scalar context, reverse() reverses C<$_>. |
4271 | ||
2f9daede TP |
4272 | This operator is also handy for inverting a hash, although there are some |
4273 | caveats. If a value is duplicated in the original hash, only one of those | |
4274 | can be represented as a key in the inverted hash. Also, this has to | |
4275 | unwind one hash and build a whole new one, which may take some time | |
2b5ab1e7 | 4276 | on a large hash, such as from a DBM file. |
2f9daede TP |
4277 | |
4278 | %by_name = reverse %by_address; # Invert the hash | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4279 | |
4280 | =item rewinddir DIRHANDLE | |
4281 | ||
4282 | Sets the current position to the beginning of the directory for the | |
19799a22 | 4283 | C<readdir> routine on DIRHANDLE. |
a0d0e21e LW |
4284 | |
4285 | =item rindex STR,SUBSTR,POSITION | |
4286 | ||
4287 | =item rindex STR,SUBSTR | |
4288 | ||
2b5ab1e7 | 4289 | Works just like index() except that it returns the position of the LAST |
a0d0e21e LW |
4290 | occurrence of SUBSTR in STR. If POSITION is specified, returns the |
4291 | last occurrence at or before that position. | |
4292 | ||
4293 | =item rmdir FILENAME | |
4294 | ||
54310121 | 4295 | =item rmdir |
bbce6d69 | 4296 | |
974da8e5 JH |
4297 | Deletes the directory specified by FILENAME if that directory is |
4298 | empty. If it succeeds it returns true, otherwise it returns false and | |
4299 | sets C<$!> (errno). If FILENAME is omitted, uses C<$_>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4300 | |
4301 | =item s/// | |
4302 | ||
4303 | The substitution operator. See L<perlop>. | |
4304 | ||
4305 | =item scalar EXPR | |
4306 | ||
5a964f20 | 4307 | Forces EXPR to be interpreted in scalar context and returns the value |
54310121 | 4308 | of EXPR. |
cb1a09d0 AD |
4309 | |
4310 | @counts = ( scalar @a, scalar @b, scalar @c ); | |
4311 | ||
54310121 | 4312 | There is no equivalent operator to force an expression to |
2b5ab1e7 | 4313 | be interpolated in list context because in practice, this is never |
cb1a09d0 AD |
4314 | needed. If you really wanted to do so, however, you could use |
4315 | the construction C<@{[ (some expression) ]}>, but usually a simple | |
4316 | C<(some expression)> suffices. | |
a0d0e21e | 4317 | |
19799a22 | 4318 | Because C<scalar> is unary operator, if you accidentally use for EXPR a |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
4319 | parenthesized list, this behaves as a scalar comma expression, evaluating |
4320 | all but the last element in void context and returning the final element | |
4321 | evaluated in scalar context. This is seldom what you want. | |
62c18ce2 GS |
4322 | |
4323 | The following single statement: | |
4324 | ||
4325 | print uc(scalar(&foo,$bar)),$baz; | |
4326 | ||
4327 | is the moral equivalent of these two: | |
4328 | ||
4329 | &foo; | |
4330 | print(uc($bar),$baz); | |
4331 | ||
4332 | See L<perlop> for more details on unary operators and the comma operator. | |
4333 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4334 | =item seek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE |
4335 | ||
19799a22 | 4336 | Sets FILEHANDLE's position, just like the C<fseek> call of C<stdio>. |
8903cb82 | 4337 | FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the |
9124316e JH |
4338 | filehandle. The values for WHENCE are C<0> to set the new position |
4339 | I<in bytes> to POSITION, C<1> to set it to the current position plus | |
4340 | POSITION, and C<2> to set it to EOF plus POSITION (typically | |
4341 | negative). For WHENCE you may use the constants C<SEEK_SET>, | |
4342 | C<SEEK_CUR>, and C<SEEK_END> (start of the file, current position, end | |
4343 | of the file) from the Fcntl module. Returns C<1> upon success, C<0> | |
4344 | otherwise. | |
4345 | ||
4346 | Note the I<in bytes>: even if the filehandle has been set to | |
4347 | operate on characters (for example by using the C<:utf8> open | |
fae2c0fb | 4348 | layer), tell() will return byte offsets, not character offsets |
9124316e | 4349 | (because implementing that would render seek() and tell() rather slow). |
8903cb82 | 4350 | |
19799a22 GS |
4351 | If you want to position file for C<sysread> or C<syswrite>, don't use |
4352 | C<seek>--buffering makes its effect on the file's system position | |
4353 | unpredictable and non-portable. Use C<sysseek> instead. | |
a0d0e21e | 4354 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
4355 | Due to the rules and rigors of ANSI C, on some systems you have to do a |
4356 | seek whenever you switch between reading and writing. Amongst other | |
4357 | things, this may have the effect of calling stdio's clearerr(3). | |
4358 | A WHENCE of C<1> (C<SEEK_CUR>) is useful for not moving the file position: | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
4359 | |
4360 | seek(TEST,0,1); | |
4361 | ||
4362 | This is also useful for applications emulating C<tail -f>. Once you hit | |
4363 | EOF on your read, and then sleep for a while, you might have to stick in a | |
19799a22 | 4364 | seek() to reset things. The C<seek> doesn't change the current position, |
8903cb82 | 4365 | but it I<does> clear the end-of-file condition on the handle, so that the |
61eff3bc | 4366 | next C<< <FILE> >> makes Perl try again to read something. We hope. |
cb1a09d0 | 4367 | |
9124316e JH |
4368 | If that doesn't work (some IO implementations are particularly |
4369 | cantankerous), then you may need something more like this: | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
4370 | |
4371 | for (;;) { | |
f86cebdf GS |
4372 | for ($curpos = tell(FILE); $_ = <FILE>; |
4373 | $curpos = tell(FILE)) { | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
4374 | # search for some stuff and put it into files |
4375 | } | |
4376 | sleep($for_a_while); | |
4377 | seek(FILE, $curpos, 0); | |
4378 | } | |
4379 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4380 | =item seekdir DIRHANDLE,POS |
4381 | ||
19799a22 GS |
4382 | Sets the current position for the C<readdir> routine on DIRHANDLE. POS |
4383 | must be a value returned by C<telldir>. Has the same caveats about | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4384 | possible directory compaction as the corresponding system library |
4385 | routine. | |
4386 | ||
4387 | =item select FILEHANDLE | |
4388 | ||
4389 | =item select | |
4390 | ||
4391 | Returns the currently selected filehandle. Sets the current default | |
4392 | filehandle for output, if FILEHANDLE is supplied. This has two | |
19799a22 | 4393 | effects: first, a C<write> or a C<print> without a filehandle will |
a0d0e21e LW |
4394 | default to this FILEHANDLE. Second, references to variables related to |
4395 | output will refer to this output channel. For example, if you have to | |
4396 | set the top of form format for more than one output channel, you might | |
4397 | do the following: | |
4398 | ||
4399 | select(REPORT1); | |
4400 | $^ = 'report1_top'; | |
4401 | select(REPORT2); | |
4402 | $^ = 'report2_top'; | |
4403 | ||
4404 | FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the | |
4405 | actual filehandle. Thus: | |
4406 | ||
4407 | $oldfh = select(STDERR); $| = 1; select($oldfh); | |
4408 | ||
4633a7c4 LW |
4409 | Some programmers may prefer to think of filehandles as objects with |
4410 | methods, preferring to write the last example as: | |
a0d0e21e | 4411 | |
28757baa | 4412 | use IO::Handle; |
a0d0e21e LW |
4413 | STDERR->autoflush(1); |
4414 | ||
4415 | =item select RBITS,WBITS,EBITS,TIMEOUT | |
4416 | ||
f86cebdf | 4417 | This calls the select(2) system call with the bit masks specified, which |
19799a22 | 4418 | can be constructed using C<fileno> and C<vec>, along these lines: |
a0d0e21e LW |
4419 | |
4420 | $rin = $win = $ein = ''; | |
4421 | vec($rin,fileno(STDIN),1) = 1; | |
4422 | vec($win,fileno(STDOUT),1) = 1; | |
4423 | $ein = $rin | $win; | |
4424 | ||
4425 | If you want to select on many filehandles you might wish to write a | |
4426 | subroutine: | |
4427 | ||
4428 | sub fhbits { | |
5a964f20 TC |
4429 | my(@fhlist) = split(' ',$_[0]); |
4430 | my($bits); | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4431 | for (@fhlist) { |
4432 | vec($bits,fileno($_),1) = 1; | |
4433 | } | |
4434 | $bits; | |
4435 | } | |
4633a7c4 | 4436 | $rin = fhbits('STDIN TTY SOCK'); |
a0d0e21e LW |
4437 | |
4438 | The usual idiom is: | |
4439 | ||
4440 | ($nfound,$timeleft) = | |
4441 | select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, $timeout); | |
4442 | ||
54310121 | 4443 | or to block until something becomes ready just do this |
a0d0e21e LW |
4444 | |
4445 | $nfound = select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, undef); | |
4446 | ||
19799a22 GS |
4447 | Most systems do not bother to return anything useful in $timeleft, so |
4448 | calling select() in scalar context just returns $nfound. | |
c07a80fd | 4449 | |
5f05dabc | 4450 | Any of the bit masks can also be undef. The timeout, if specified, is |
a0d0e21e | 4451 | in seconds, which may be fractional. Note: not all implementations are |
be119125 | 4452 | capable of returning the $timeleft. If not, they always return |
19799a22 | 4453 | $timeleft equal to the supplied $timeout. |
a0d0e21e | 4454 | |
ff68c719 | 4455 | You can effect a sleep of 250 milliseconds this way: |
a0d0e21e LW |
4456 | |
4457 | select(undef, undef, undef, 0.25); | |
4458 | ||
b09fc1d8 JH |
4459 | Note that whether C<select> gets restarted after signals (say, SIGALRM) |
4460 | is implementation-dependent. | |
4461 | ||
19799a22 | 4462 | B<WARNING>: One should not attempt to mix buffered I/O (like C<read> |
61eff3bc | 4463 | or <FH>) with C<select>, except as permitted by POSIX, and even |
19799a22 | 4464 | then only on POSIX systems. You have to use C<sysread> instead. |
a0d0e21e LW |
4465 | |
4466 | =item semctl ID,SEMNUM,CMD,ARG | |
4467 | ||
19799a22 | 4468 | Calls the System V IPC function C<semctl>. You'll probably have to say |
0ade1984 JH |
4469 | |
4470 | use IPC::SysV; | |
4471 | ||
4472 | first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is IPC_STAT or | |
4473 | GETALL, then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned | |
e4038a1f MS |
4474 | semid_ds structure or semaphore value array. Returns like C<ioctl>: |
4475 | the undefined value for error, "C<0 but true>" for zero, or the actual | |
4476 | return value otherwise. The ARG must consist of a vector of native | |
106325ad | 4477 | short integers, which may be created with C<pack("s!",(0)x$nsem)>. |
4755096e GS |
4478 | See also L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, C<IPC::SysV>, C<IPC::Semaphore> |
4479 | documentation. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4480 | |
4481 | =item semget KEY,NSEMS,FLAGS | |
4482 | ||
4483 | Calls the System V IPC function semget. Returns the semaphore id, or | |
4755096e GS |
4484 | the undefined value if there is an error. See also |
4485 | L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, C<IPC::SysV>, C<IPC::SysV::Semaphore> | |
4486 | documentation. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4487 | |
4488 | =item semop KEY,OPSTRING | |
4489 | ||
4490 | Calls the System V IPC function semop to perform semaphore operations | |
5354997a | 4491 | such as signalling and waiting. OPSTRING must be a packed array of |
a0d0e21e | 4492 | semop structures. Each semop structure can be generated with |
f878ba33 | 4493 | C<pack("s!3", $semnum, $semop, $semflag)>. The number of semaphore |
19799a22 GS |
4494 | operations is implied by the length of OPSTRING. Returns true if |
4495 | successful, or false if there is an error. As an example, the | |
4496 | following code waits on semaphore $semnum of semaphore id $semid: | |
a0d0e21e | 4497 | |
f878ba33 | 4498 | $semop = pack("s!3", $semnum, -1, 0); |
a0d0e21e LW |
4499 | die "Semaphore trouble: $!\n" unless semop($semid, $semop); |
4500 | ||
4755096e GS |
4501 | To signal the semaphore, replace C<-1> with C<1>. See also |
4502 | L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, C<IPC::SysV>, and C<IPC::SysV::Semaphore> | |
4503 | documentation. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4504 | |
4505 | =item send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS,TO | |
4506 | ||
4507 | =item send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS | |
4508 | ||
fe854a6f | 4509 | Sends a message on a socket. Attempts to send the scalar MSG to the |
9124316e JH |
4510 | SOCKET filehandle. Takes the same flags as the system call of the |
4511 | same name. On unconnected sockets you must specify a destination to | |
4512 | send TO, in which case it does a C C<sendto>. Returns the number of | |
4513 | characters sent, or the undefined value if there is an error. The C | |
4514 | system call sendmsg(2) is currently unimplemented. See | |
4515 | L<perlipc/"UDP: Message Passing"> for examples. | |
4516 | ||
4517 | Note the I<characters>: depending on the status of the socket, either | |
4518 | (8-bit) bytes or characters are sent. By default all sockets operate | |
4519 | on bytes, but for example if the socket has been changed using | |
1d714267 JH |
4520 | binmode() to operate with the C<:utf8> I/O layer (see L</open>, or the |
4521 | C<open> pragma, L<open>), the I/O will operate on UTF-8 encoded | |
4522 | Unicode characters, not bytes. Similarly for the C<:encoding> pragma: | |
4523 | in that case pretty much any characters can be sent. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4524 | |
4525 | =item setpgrp PID,PGRP | |
4526 | ||
7660c0ab | 4527 | Sets the current process group for the specified PID, C<0> for the current |
a0d0e21e | 4528 | process. Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that doesn't |
81777298 GS |
4529 | implement POSIX setpgid(2) or BSD setpgrp(2). If the arguments are omitted, |
4530 | it defaults to C<0,0>. Note that the BSD 4.2 version of C<setpgrp> does not | |
4531 | accept any arguments, so only C<setpgrp(0,0)> is portable. See also | |
4532 | C<POSIX::setsid()>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4533 | |
4534 | =item setpriority WHICH,WHO,PRIORITY | |
4535 | ||
4536 | Sets the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user. | |
f86cebdf GS |
4537 | (See setpriority(2).) Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine |
4538 | that doesn't implement setpriority(2). | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4539 | |
4540 | =item setsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME,OPTVAL | |
4541 | ||
4542 | Sets the socket option requested. Returns undefined if there is an | |
7660c0ab | 4543 | error. OPTVAL may be specified as C<undef> if you don't want to pass an |
a0d0e21e LW |
4544 | argument. |
4545 | ||
4546 | =item shift ARRAY | |
4547 | ||
4548 | =item shift | |
4549 | ||
4550 | Shifts the first value of the array off and returns it, shortening the | |
4551 | array by 1 and moving everything down. If there are no elements in the | |
4552 | array, returns the undefined value. If ARRAY is omitted, shifts the | |
7660c0ab A |
4553 | C<@_> array within the lexical scope of subroutines and formats, and the |
4554 | C<@ARGV> array at file scopes or within the lexical scopes established by | |
7d30b5c4 | 4555 | the C<eval ''>, C<BEGIN {}>, C<INIT {}>, C<CHECK {}>, and C<END {}> |
4f25aa18 GS |
4556 | constructs. |
4557 | ||
a1b2c429 | 4558 | See also C<unshift>, C<push>, and C<pop>. C<shift> and C<unshift> do the |
19799a22 | 4559 | same thing to the left end of an array that C<pop> and C<push> do to the |
977336f5 | 4560 | right end. |
a0d0e21e LW |
4561 | |
4562 | =item shmctl ID,CMD,ARG | |
4563 | ||
0ade1984 JH |
4564 | Calls the System V IPC function shmctl. You'll probably have to say |
4565 | ||
4566 | use IPC::SysV; | |
4567 | ||
7660c0ab A |
4568 | first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is C<IPC_STAT>, |
4569 | then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned C<shmid_ds> | |
4570 | structure. Returns like ioctl: the undefined value for error, "C<0> but | |
0ade1984 | 4571 | true" for zero, or the actual return value otherwise. |
4755096e | 4572 | See also L<perlipc/"SysV IPC"> and C<IPC::SysV> documentation. |
a0d0e21e LW |
4573 | |
4574 | =item shmget KEY,SIZE,FLAGS | |
4575 | ||
4576 | Calls the System V IPC function shmget. Returns the shared memory | |
4577 | segment id, or the undefined value if there is an error. | |
4755096e | 4578 | See also L<perlipc/"SysV IPC"> and C<IPC::SysV> documentation. |
a0d0e21e LW |
4579 | |
4580 | =item shmread ID,VAR,POS,SIZE | |
4581 | ||
4582 | =item shmwrite ID,STRING,POS,SIZE | |
4583 | ||
4584 | Reads or writes the System V shared memory segment ID starting at | |
4585 | position POS for size SIZE by attaching to it, copying in/out, and | |
5a964f20 | 4586 | detaching from it. When reading, VAR must be a variable that will |
a0d0e21e LW |
4587 | hold the data read. When writing, if STRING is too long, only SIZE |
4588 | bytes are used; if STRING is too short, nulls are written to fill out | |
19799a22 | 4589 | SIZE bytes. Return true if successful, or false if there is an error. |
4755096e GS |
4590 | shmread() taints the variable. See also L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, |
4591 | C<IPC::SysV> documentation, and the C<IPC::Shareable> module from CPAN. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4592 | |
4593 | =item shutdown SOCKET,HOW | |
4594 | ||
4595 | Shuts down a socket connection in the manner indicated by HOW, which | |
4596 | has the same interpretation as in the system call of the same name. | |
4597 | ||
f86cebdf GS |
4598 | shutdown(SOCKET, 0); # I/we have stopped reading data |
4599 | shutdown(SOCKET, 1); # I/we have stopped writing data | |
4600 | shutdown(SOCKET, 2); # I/we have stopped using this socket | |
5a964f20 TC |
4601 | |
4602 | This is useful with sockets when you want to tell the other | |
4603 | side you're done writing but not done reading, or vice versa. | |
b76cc8ba | 4604 | It's also a more insistent form of close because it also |
19799a22 | 4605 | disables the file descriptor in any forked copies in other |
5a964f20 TC |
4606 | processes. |
4607 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4608 | =item sin EXPR |
4609 | ||
54310121 | 4610 | =item sin |
bbce6d69 | 4611 | |
a0d0e21e | 4612 | Returns the sine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted, |
7660c0ab | 4613 | returns sine of C<$_>. |
a0d0e21e | 4614 | |
ca6e1c26 | 4615 | For the inverse sine operation, you may use the C<Math::Trig::asin> |
28757baa | 4616 | function, or use this relation: |
4617 | ||
4618 | sub asin { atan2($_[0], sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0])) } | |
4619 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4620 | =item sleep EXPR |
4621 | ||
4622 | =item sleep | |
4623 | ||
4624 | Causes the script to sleep for EXPR seconds, or forever if no EXPR. | |
7660c0ab | 4625 | May be interrupted if the process receives a signal such as C<SIGALRM>. |
1d3434b8 | 4626 | Returns the number of seconds actually slept. You probably cannot |
19799a22 GS |
4627 | mix C<alarm> and C<sleep> calls, because C<sleep> is often implemented |
4628 | using C<alarm>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4629 | |
4630 | On some older systems, it may sleep up to a full second less than what | |
4631 | you requested, depending on how it counts seconds. Most modern systems | |
5a964f20 TC |
4632 | always sleep the full amount. They may appear to sleep longer than that, |
4633 | however, because your process might not be scheduled right away in a | |
4634 | busy multitasking system. | |
a0d0e21e | 4635 | |
cb1a09d0 | 4636 | For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's |
68f8bed4 | 4637 | C<syscall> interface to access setitimer(2) if your system supports |
83df6a1d JH |
4638 | it, or else see L</select> above. The Time::HiRes module (from CPAN, |
4639 | and starting from Perl 5.8 part of the standard distribution) may also | |
4640 | help. | |
cb1a09d0 | 4641 | |
b6e2112e | 4642 | See also the POSIX module's C<pause> function. |
5f05dabc | 4643 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4644 | =item socket SOCKET,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL |
4645 | ||
4646 | Opens a socket of the specified kind and attaches it to filehandle | |
19799a22 GS |
4647 | SOCKET. DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as for |
4648 | the system call of the same name. You should C<use Socket> first | |
4649 | to get the proper definitions imported. See the examples in | |
4650 | L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">. | |
a0d0e21e | 4651 | |
8d2a6795 GS |
4652 | On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will |
4653 | be set for the newly opened file descriptor, as determined by the | |
4654 | value of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>. | |
4655 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4656 | =item socketpair SOCKET1,SOCKET2,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL |
4657 | ||
4658 | Creates an unnamed pair of sockets in the specified domain, of the | |
5f05dabc | 4659 | specified type. DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as |
a0d0e21e | 4660 | for the system call of the same name. If unimplemented, yields a fatal |
19799a22 | 4661 | error. Returns true if successful. |
a0d0e21e | 4662 | |
8d2a6795 GS |
4663 | On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will |
4664 | be set for the newly opened file descriptors, as determined by the value | |
4665 | of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>. | |
4666 | ||
19799a22 | 4667 | Some systems defined C<pipe> in terms of C<socketpair>, in which a call |
5a964f20 TC |
4668 | to C<pipe(Rdr, Wtr)> is essentially: |
4669 | ||
4670 | use Socket; | |
4671 | socketpair(Rdr, Wtr, AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, PF_UNSPEC); | |
4672 | shutdown(Rdr, 1); # no more writing for reader | |
4673 | shutdown(Wtr, 0); # no more reading for writer | |
4674 | ||
02fc2eee NC |
4675 | See L<perlipc> for an example of socketpair use. Perl 5.8 and later will |
4676 | emulate socketpair using IP sockets to localhost if your system implements | |
4677 | sockets but not socketpair. | |
5a964f20 | 4678 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4679 | =item sort SUBNAME LIST |
4680 | ||
4681 | =item sort BLOCK LIST | |
4682 | ||
4683 | =item sort LIST | |
4684 | ||
41d39f30 | 4685 | In list context, this sorts the LIST and returns the sorted list value. |
9fdc1d08 | 4686 | In scalar context, the behaviour of C<sort()> is undefined. |
41d39f30 A |
4687 | |
4688 | If SUBNAME or BLOCK is omitted, C<sort>s in standard string comparison | |
4689 | order. If SUBNAME is specified, it gives the name of a subroutine | |
4690 | that returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than C<0>, | |
4691 | depending on how the elements of the list are to be ordered. (The C<< | |
4692 | <=> >> and C<cmp> operators are extremely useful in such routines.) | |
4693 | SUBNAME may be a scalar variable name (unsubscripted), in which case | |
4694 | the value provides the name of (or a reference to) the actual | |
4695 | subroutine to use. In place of a SUBNAME, you can provide a BLOCK as | |
4696 | an anonymous, in-line sort subroutine. | |
a0d0e21e | 4697 | |
43481408 | 4698 | If the subroutine's prototype is C<($$)>, the elements to be compared |
f9a36357 GS |
4699 | are passed by reference in C<@_>, as for a normal subroutine. This is |
4700 | slower than unprototyped subroutines, where the elements to be | |
4701 | compared are passed into the subroutine | |
43481408 GS |
4702 | as the package global variables $a and $b (see example below). Note that |
4703 | in the latter case, it is usually counter-productive to declare $a and | |
4704 | $b as lexicals. | |
4705 | ||
4706 | In either case, the subroutine may not be recursive. The values to be | |
4707 | compared are always passed by reference, so don't modify them. | |
a0d0e21e | 4708 | |
0a753a76 | 4709 | You also cannot exit out of the sort block or subroutine using any of the |
19799a22 | 4710 | loop control operators described in L<perlsyn> or with C<goto>. |
0a753a76 | 4711 | |
a034a98d DD |
4712 | When C<use locale> is in effect, C<sort LIST> sorts LIST according to the |
4713 | current collation locale. See L<perllocale>. | |
4714 | ||
58c7fc7c JH |
4715 | Perl 5.6 and earlier used a quicksort algorithm to implement sort. |
4716 | That algorithm was not stable, and I<could> go quadratic. (A I<stable> sort | |
4717 | preserves the input order of elements that compare equal. Although | |
4718 | quicksort's run time is O(NlogN) when averaged over all arrays of | |
4719 | length N, the time can be O(N**2), I<quadratic> behavior, for some | |
4720 | inputs.) In 5.7, the quicksort implementation was replaced with | |
4721 | a stable mergesort algorithm whose worst case behavior is O(NlogN). | |
4722 | But benchmarks indicated that for some inputs, on some platforms, | |
4723 | the original quicksort was faster. 5.8 has a sort pragma for | |
4724 | limited control of the sort. Its rather blunt control of the | |
4725 | underlying algorithm may not persist into future perls, but the | |
4726 | ability to characterize the input or output in implementation | |
6a30edae | 4727 | independent ways quite probably will. See L<sort>. |
c16425f1 | 4728 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4729 | Examples: |
4730 | ||
4731 | # sort lexically | |
4732 | @articles = sort @files; | |
4733 | ||
4734 | # same thing, but with explicit sort routine | |
4735 | @articles = sort {$a cmp $b} @files; | |
4736 | ||
cb1a09d0 | 4737 | # now case-insensitively |
54310121 | 4738 | @articles = sort {uc($a) cmp uc($b)} @files; |
cb1a09d0 | 4739 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4740 | # same thing in reversed order |
4741 | @articles = sort {$b cmp $a} @files; | |
4742 | ||
4743 | # sort numerically ascending | |
4744 | @articles = sort {$a <=> $b} @files; | |
4745 | ||
4746 | # sort numerically descending | |
4747 | @articles = sort {$b <=> $a} @files; | |
4748 | ||
19799a22 GS |
4749 | # this sorts the %age hash by value instead of key |
4750 | # using an in-line function | |
4751 | @eldest = sort { $age{$b} <=> $age{$a} } keys %age; | |
4752 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4753 | # sort using explicit subroutine name |
4754 | sub byage { | |
2f9daede | 4755 | $age{$a} <=> $age{$b}; # presuming numeric |
a0d0e21e LW |
4756 | } |
4757 | @sortedclass = sort byage @class; | |
4758 | ||
19799a22 GS |
4759 | sub backwards { $b cmp $a } |
4760 | @harry = qw(dog cat x Cain Abel); | |
4761 | @george = qw(gone chased yz Punished Axed); | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4762 | print sort @harry; |
4763 | # prints AbelCaincatdogx | |
4764 | print sort backwards @harry; | |
4765 | # prints xdogcatCainAbel | |
4766 | print sort @george, 'to', @harry; | |
4767 | # prints AbelAxedCainPunishedcatchaseddoggonetoxyz | |
4768 | ||
54310121 | 4769 | # inefficiently sort by descending numeric compare using |
4770 | # the first integer after the first = sign, or the | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
4771 | # whole record case-insensitively otherwise |
4772 | ||
4773 | @new = sort { | |
4774 | ($b =~ /=(\d+)/)[0] <=> ($a =~ /=(\d+)/)[0] | |
4775 | || | |
4776 | uc($a) cmp uc($b) | |
4777 | } @old; | |
4778 | ||
4779 | # same thing, but much more efficiently; | |
4780 | # we'll build auxiliary indices instead | |
4781 | # for speed | |
4782 | @nums = @caps = (); | |
54310121 | 4783 | for (@old) { |
cb1a09d0 AD |
4784 | push @nums, /=(\d+)/; |
4785 | push @caps, uc($_); | |
54310121 | 4786 | } |
cb1a09d0 AD |
4787 | |
4788 | @new = @old[ sort { | |
4789 | $nums[$b] <=> $nums[$a] | |
4790 | || | |
4791 | $caps[$a] cmp $caps[$b] | |
4792 | } 0..$#old | |
4793 | ]; | |
4794 | ||
19799a22 | 4795 | # same thing, but without any temps |
cb1a09d0 | 4796 | @new = map { $_->[0] } |
19799a22 GS |
4797 | sort { $b->[1] <=> $a->[1] |
4798 | || | |
4799 | $a->[2] cmp $b->[2] | |
4800 | } map { [$_, /=(\d+)/, uc($_)] } @old; | |
61eff3bc | 4801 | |
43481408 GS |
4802 | # using a prototype allows you to use any comparison subroutine |
4803 | # as a sort subroutine (including other package's subroutines) | |
4804 | package other; | |
4805 | sub backwards ($$) { $_[1] cmp $_[0]; } # $a and $b are not set here | |
4806 | ||
4807 | package main; | |
4808 | @new = sort other::backwards @old; | |
cb1a09d0 | 4809 | |
58c7fc7c JH |
4810 | # guarantee stability, regardless of algorithm |
4811 | use sort 'stable'; | |
4812 | @new = sort { substr($a, 3, 5) cmp substr($b, 3, 5) } @old; | |
4813 | ||
268e9d79 JL |
4814 | # force use of mergesort (not portable outside Perl 5.8) |
4815 | use sort '_mergesort'; # note discouraging _ | |
58c7fc7c | 4816 | @new = sort { substr($a, 3, 5) cmp substr($b, 3, 5) } @old; |
58c7fc7c | 4817 | |
19799a22 GS |
4818 | If you're using strict, you I<must not> declare $a |
4819 | and $b as lexicals. They are package globals. That means | |
47223a36 | 4820 | if you're in the C<main> package and type |
13a2d996 | 4821 | |
47223a36 | 4822 | @articles = sort {$b <=> $a} @files; |
13a2d996 | 4823 | |
47223a36 JH |
4824 | then C<$a> and C<$b> are C<$main::a> and C<$main::b> (or C<$::a> and C<$::b>), |
4825 | but if you're in the C<FooPack> package, it's the same as typing | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
4826 | |
4827 | @articles = sort {$FooPack::b <=> $FooPack::a} @files; | |
4828 | ||
55497cff | 4829 | The comparison function is required to behave. If it returns |
7660c0ab A |
4830 | inconsistent results (sometimes saying C<$x[1]> is less than C<$x[2]> and |
4831 | sometimes saying the opposite, for example) the results are not | |
4832 | well-defined. | |
55497cff | 4833 | |
03190201 JL |
4834 | Because C<< <=> >> returns C<undef> when either operand is C<NaN> |
4835 | (not-a-number), and because C<sort> will trigger a fatal error unless the | |
4836 | result of a comparison is defined, when sorting with a comparison function | |
4837 | like C<< $a <=> $b >>, be careful about lists that might contain a C<NaN>. | |
4838 | The following example takes advantage of the fact that C<NaN != NaN> to | |
4839 | eliminate any C<NaN>s from the input. | |
4840 | ||
4841 | @result = sort { $a <=> $b } grep { $_ == $_ } @input; | |
4842 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4843 | =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH,LIST |
4844 | ||
4845 | =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH | |
4846 | ||
4847 | =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET | |
4848 | ||
453f9044 GS |
4849 | =item splice ARRAY |
4850 | ||
a0d0e21e | 4851 | Removes the elements designated by OFFSET and LENGTH from an array, and |
5a964f20 TC |
4852 | replaces them with the elements of LIST, if any. In list context, |
4853 | returns the elements removed from the array. In scalar context, | |
43051805 | 4854 | returns the last element removed, or C<undef> if no elements are |
48cdf507 | 4855 | removed. The array grows or shrinks as necessary. |
19799a22 | 4856 | If OFFSET is negative then it starts that far from the end of the array. |
48cdf507 | 4857 | If LENGTH is omitted, removes everything from OFFSET onward. |
d0920e03 MJD |
4858 | If LENGTH is negative, removes the elements from OFFSET onward |
4859 | except for -LENGTH elements at the end of the array. | |
8cbc2e3b JH |
4860 | If both OFFSET and LENGTH are omitted, removes everything. If OFFSET is |
4861 | past the end of the array, perl issues a warning, and splices at the | |
4862 | end of the array. | |
453f9044 | 4863 | |
3272a53d | 4864 | The following equivalences hold (assuming C<< $[ == 0 and $#a >= $i >> ) |
a0d0e21e | 4865 | |
48cdf507 | 4866 | push(@a,$x,$y) splice(@a,@a,0,$x,$y) |
a0d0e21e LW |
4867 | pop(@a) splice(@a,-1) |
4868 | shift(@a) splice(@a,0,1) | |
4869 | unshift(@a,$x,$y) splice(@a,0,0,$x,$y) | |
3272a53d | 4870 | $a[$i] = $y splice(@a,$i,1,$y) |
a0d0e21e LW |
4871 | |
4872 | Example, assuming array lengths are passed before arrays: | |
4873 | ||
4874 | sub aeq { # compare two list values | |
5a964f20 TC |
4875 | my(@a) = splice(@_,0,shift); |
4876 | my(@b) = splice(@_,0,shift); | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4877 | return 0 unless @a == @b; # same len? |
4878 | while (@a) { | |
4879 | return 0 if pop(@a) ne pop(@b); | |
4880 | } | |
4881 | return 1; | |
4882 | } | |
4883 | if (&aeq($len,@foo[1..$len],0+@bar,@bar)) { ... } | |
4884 | ||
4885 | =item split /PATTERN/,EXPR,LIMIT | |
4886 | ||
4887 | =item split /PATTERN/,EXPR | |
4888 | ||
4889 | =item split /PATTERN/ | |
4890 | ||
4891 | =item split | |
4892 | ||
19799a22 | 4893 | Splits a string into a list of strings and returns that list. By default, |
5a964f20 | 4894 | empty leading fields are preserved, and empty trailing ones are deleted. |
a0d0e21e | 4895 | |
46836f5c GS |
4896 | In scalar context, returns the number of fields found and splits into |
4897 | the C<@_> array. Use of split in scalar context is deprecated, however, | |
4898 | because it clobbers your subroutine arguments. | |
a0d0e21e | 4899 | |
7660c0ab | 4900 | If EXPR is omitted, splits the C<$_> string. If PATTERN is also omitted, |
4633a7c4 LW |
4901 | splits on whitespace (after skipping any leading whitespace). Anything |
4902 | matching PATTERN is taken to be a delimiter separating the fields. (Note | |
fb73857a | 4903 | that the delimiter may be longer than one character.) |
4904 | ||
836e0ee7 | 4905 | If LIMIT is specified and positive, it represents the maximum number |
e833de1e BS |
4906 | of fields the EXPR will be split into, though the actual number of |
4907 | fields returned depends on the number of times PATTERN matches within | |
4908 | EXPR. If LIMIT is unspecified or zero, trailing null fields are | |
4909 | stripped (which potential users of C<pop> would do well to remember). | |
4910 | If LIMIT is negative, it is treated as if an arbitrarily large LIMIT | |
4911 | had been specified. Note that splitting an EXPR that evaluates to the | |
4912 | empty string always returns the empty list, regardless of the LIMIT | |
4913 | specified. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4914 | |
4915 | A pattern matching the null string (not to be confused with | |
748a9306 | 4916 | a null pattern C<//>, which is just one member of the set of patterns |
a0d0e21e LW |
4917 | matching a null string) will split the value of EXPR into separate |
4918 | characters at each point it matches that way. For example: | |
4919 | ||
4920 | print join(':', split(/ */, 'hi there')); | |
4921 | ||
4922 | produces the output 'h:i:t:h:e:r:e'. | |
4923 | ||
6de67870 JP |
4924 | Using the empty pattern C<//> specifically matches the null string, and is |
4925 | not be confused with the use of C<//> to mean "the last successful pattern | |
4926 | match". | |
4927 | ||
91542540 | 4928 | Empty leading (or trailing) fields are produced when there are positive width |
0156e0fd RB |
4929 | matches at the beginning (or end) of the string; a zero-width match at the |
4930 | beginning (or end) of the string does not produce an empty field. For | |
4931 | example: | |
4932 | ||
4933 | print join(':', split(/(?=\w)/, 'hi there!')); | |
4934 | ||
4935 | produces the output 'h:i :t:h:e:r:e!'. | |
4936 | ||
5f05dabc | 4937 | The LIMIT parameter can be used to split a line partially |
a0d0e21e LW |
4938 | |
4939 | ($login, $passwd, $remainder) = split(/:/, $_, 3); | |
4940 | ||
b5da07fd TB |
4941 | When assigning to a list, if LIMIT is omitted, or zero, Perl supplies |
4942 | a LIMIT one larger than the number of variables in the list, to avoid | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4943 | unnecessary work. For the list above LIMIT would have been 4 by |
4944 | default. In time critical applications it behooves you not to split | |
4945 | into more fields than you really need. | |
4946 | ||
19799a22 | 4947 | If the PATTERN contains parentheses, additional list elements are |
a0d0e21e LW |
4948 | created from each matching substring in the delimiter. |
4949 | ||
da0045b7 | 4950 | split(/([,-])/, "1-10,20", 3); |
a0d0e21e LW |
4951 | |
4952 | produces the list value | |
4953 | ||
4954 | (1, '-', 10, ',', 20) | |
4955 | ||
19799a22 | 4956 | If you had the entire header of a normal Unix email message in $header, |
4633a7c4 LW |
4957 | you could split it up into fields and their values this way: |
4958 | ||
4959 | $header =~ s/\n\s+/ /g; # fix continuation lines | |
fb73857a | 4960 | %hdrs = (UNIX_FROM => split /^(\S*?):\s*/m, $header); |
4633a7c4 | 4961 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
4962 | The pattern C</PATTERN/> may be replaced with an expression to specify |
4963 | patterns that vary at runtime. (To do runtime compilation only once, | |
748a9306 LW |
4964 | use C</$variable/o>.) |
4965 | ||
5da728e2 A |
4966 | As a special case, specifying a PATTERN of space (S<C<' '>>) will split on |
4967 | white space just as C<split> with no arguments does. Thus, S<C<split(' ')>> can | |
4968 | be used to emulate B<awk>'s default behavior, whereas S<C<split(/ /)>> | |
748a9306 | 4969 | will give you as many null initial fields as there are leading spaces. |
5da728e2 | 4970 | A C<split> on C</\s+/> is like a S<C<split(' ')>> except that any leading |
19799a22 | 4971 | whitespace produces a null first field. A C<split> with no arguments |
5da728e2 | 4972 | really does a S<C<split(' ', $_)>> internally. |
a0d0e21e | 4973 | |
cc50a203 | 4974 | A PATTERN of C</^/> is treated as if it were C</^/m>, since it isn't |
1ec94568 MG |
4975 | much use otherwise. |
4976 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
4977 | Example: |
4978 | ||
5a964f20 TC |
4979 | open(PASSWD, '/etc/passwd'); |
4980 | while (<PASSWD>) { | |
5b3eff12 MS |
4981 | chomp; |
4982 | ($login, $passwd, $uid, $gid, | |
f86cebdf | 4983 | $gcos, $home, $shell) = split(/:/); |
5a964f20 | 4984 | #... |
a0d0e21e LW |
4985 | } |
4986 | ||
6de67870 JP |
4987 | As with regular pattern matching, any capturing parentheses that are not |
4988 | matched in a C<split()> will be set to C<undef> when returned: | |
4989 | ||
4990 | @fields = split /(A)|B/, "1A2B3"; | |
4991 | # @fields is (1, 'A', 2, undef, 3) | |
a0d0e21e | 4992 | |
5f05dabc | 4993 | =item sprintf FORMAT, LIST |
a0d0e21e | 4994 | |
6662521e GS |
4995 | Returns a string formatted by the usual C<printf> conventions of the C |
4996 | library function C<sprintf>. See below for more details | |
4997 | and see L<sprintf(3)> or L<printf(3)> on your system for an explanation of | |
4998 | the general principles. | |
4999 | ||
5000 | For example: | |
5001 | ||
5002 | # Format number with up to 8 leading zeroes | |
5003 | $result = sprintf("%08d", $number); | |
5004 | ||
5005 | # Round number to 3 digits after decimal point | |
5006 | $rounded = sprintf("%.3f", $number); | |
74a77017 | 5007 | |
19799a22 GS |
5008 | Perl does its own C<sprintf> formatting--it emulates the C |
5009 | function C<sprintf>, but it doesn't use it (except for floating-point | |
74a77017 | 5010 | numbers, and even then only the standard modifiers are allowed). As a |
19799a22 | 5011 | result, any non-standard extensions in your local C<sprintf> are not |
74a77017 CS |
5012 | available from Perl. |
5013 | ||
194e7b38 DC |
5014 | Unlike C<printf>, C<sprintf> does not do what you probably mean when you |
5015 | pass it an array as your first argument. The array is given scalar context, | |
5016 | and instead of using the 0th element of the array as the format, Perl will | |
5017 | use the count of elements in the array as the format, which is almost never | |
5018 | useful. | |
5019 | ||
19799a22 | 5020 | Perl's C<sprintf> permits the following universally-known conversions: |
74a77017 CS |
5021 | |
5022 | %% a percent sign | |
5023 | %c a character with the given number | |
5024 | %s a string | |
5025 | %d a signed integer, in decimal | |
5026 | %u an unsigned integer, in decimal | |
5027 | %o an unsigned integer, in octal | |
5028 | %x an unsigned integer, in hexadecimal | |
5029 | %e a floating-point number, in scientific notation | |
5030 | %f a floating-point number, in fixed decimal notation | |
5031 | %g a floating-point number, in %e or %f notation | |
5032 | ||
1b3f7d21 | 5033 | In addition, Perl permits the following widely-supported conversions: |
74a77017 | 5034 | |
74a77017 CS |
5035 | %X like %x, but using upper-case letters |
5036 | %E like %e, but using an upper-case "E" | |
5037 | %G like %g, but with an upper-case "E" (if applicable) | |
4f19785b | 5038 | %b an unsigned integer, in binary |
74a77017 | 5039 | %p a pointer (outputs the Perl value's address in hexadecimal) |
1b3f7d21 | 5040 | %n special: *stores* the number of characters output so far |
b76cc8ba | 5041 | into the next variable in the parameter list |
74a77017 | 5042 | |
1b3f7d21 CS |
5043 | Finally, for backward (and we do mean "backward") compatibility, Perl |
5044 | permits these unnecessary but widely-supported conversions: | |
74a77017 | 5045 | |
1b3f7d21 | 5046 | %i a synonym for %d |
74a77017 CS |
5047 | %D a synonym for %ld |
5048 | %U a synonym for %lu | |
5049 | %O a synonym for %lo | |
5050 | %F a synonym for %f | |
5051 | ||
7b8dd722 HS |
5052 | Note that the number of exponent digits in the scientific notation produced |
5053 | by C<%e>, C<%E>, C<%g> and C<%G> for numbers with the modulus of the | |
b73fd64e JH |
5054 | exponent less than 100 is system-dependent: it may be three or less |
5055 | (zero-padded as necessary). In other words, 1.23 times ten to the | |
5056 | 99th may be either "1.23e99" or "1.23e099". | |
d764f01a | 5057 | |
7b8dd722 HS |
5058 | Between the C<%> and the format letter, you may specify a number of |
5059 | additional attributes controlling the interpretation of the format. | |
5060 | In order, these are: | |
74a77017 | 5061 | |
7b8dd722 HS |
5062 | =over 4 |
5063 | ||
5064 | =item format parameter index | |
5065 | ||
5066 | An explicit format parameter index, such as C<2$>. By default sprintf | |
5067 | will format the next unused argument in the list, but this allows you | |
5068 | to take the arguments out of order. Eg: | |
5069 | ||
5070 | printf '%2$d %1$d', 12, 34; # prints "34 12" | |
5071 | printf '%3$d %d %1$d', 1, 2, 3; # prints "3 1 1" | |
5072 | ||
5073 | =item flags | |
5074 | ||
5075 | one or more of: | |
74a77017 CS |
5076 | space prefix positive number with a space |
5077 | + prefix positive number with a plus sign | |
5078 | - left-justify within the field | |
5079 | 0 use zeros, not spaces, to right-justify | |
7b8dd722 HS |
5080 | # prefix non-zero octal with "0", non-zero hex with "0x", |
5081 | non-zero binary with "0b" | |
5082 | ||
5083 | For example: | |
5084 | ||
5085 | printf '<% d>', 12; # prints "< 12>" | |
5086 | printf '<%+d>', 12; # prints "<+12>" | |
5087 | printf '<%6s>', 12; # prints "< 12>" | |
5088 | printf '<%-6s>', 12; # prints "<12 >" | |
5089 | printf '<%06s>', 12; # prints "<000012>" | |
5090 | printf '<%#x>', 12; # prints "<0xc>" | |
5091 | ||
5092 | =item vector flag | |
5093 | ||
5094 | The vector flag C<v>, optionally specifying the join string to use. | |
5095 | This flag tells perl to interpret the supplied string as a vector | |
5096 | of integers, one for each character in the string, separated by | |
5097 | a given string (a dot C<.> by default). This can be useful for | |
5098 | displaying ordinal values of characters in arbitrary strings: | |
5099 | ||
5100 | printf "version is v%vd\n", $^V; # Perl's version | |
5101 | ||
5102 | Put an asterisk C<*> before the C<v> to override the string to | |
5103 | use to separate the numbers: | |
5104 | ||
5105 | printf "address is %*vX\n", ":", $addr; # IPv6 address | |
5106 | printf "bits are %0*v8b\n", " ", $bits; # random bitstring | |
5107 | ||
5108 | You can also explicitly specify the argument number to use for | |
5109 | the join string using eg C<*2$v>: | |
5110 | ||
5111 | printf '%*4$vX %*4$vX %*4$vX', @addr[1..3], ":"; # 3 IPv6 addresses | |
5112 | ||
5113 | =item (minimum) width | |
5114 | ||
5115 | Arguments are usually formatted to be only as wide as required to | |
5116 | display the given value. You can override the width by putting | |
5117 | a number here, or get the width from the next argument (with C<*>) | |
a472f209 | 5118 | or from a specified argument (with eg C<*2$>): |
7b8dd722 HS |
5119 | |
5120 | printf '<%s>', "a"; # prints "<a>" | |
5121 | printf '<%6s>', "a"; # prints "< a>" | |
5122 | printf '<%*s>', 6, "a"; # prints "< a>" | |
5123 | printf '<%*2$s>', "a", 6; # prints "< a>" | |
5124 | printf '<%2s>', "long"; # prints "<long>" (does not truncate) | |
5125 | ||
19799a22 GS |
5126 | If a field width obtained through C<*> is negative, it has the same |
5127 | effect as the C<-> flag: left-justification. | |
74a77017 | 5128 | |
7b8dd722 HS |
5129 | =item precision, or maximum width |
5130 | ||
6c8c9a8e | 5131 | You can specify a precision (for numeric conversions) or a maximum |
7b8dd722 | 5132 | width (for string conversions) by specifying a C<.> followed by a number. |
1ff2d182 AS |
5133 | For floating point formats, with the exception of 'g' and 'G', this specifies |
5134 | the number of decimal places to show (the default being 6), eg: | |
7b8dd722 HS |
5135 | |
5136 | # these examples are subject to system-specific variation | |
5137 | printf '<%f>', 1; # prints "<1.000000>" | |
5138 | printf '<%.1f>', 1; # prints "<1.0>" | |
5139 | printf '<%.0f>', 1; # prints "<1>" | |
5140 | printf '<%e>', 10; # prints "<1.000000e+01>" | |
5141 | printf '<%.1e>', 10; # prints "<1.0e+01>" | |
5142 | ||
1ff2d182 AS |
5143 | For 'g' and 'G', this specifies the maximum number of digits to show, |
5144 | including prior to the decimal point as well as after it, eg: | |
5145 | ||
5146 | # these examples are subject to system-specific variation | |
5147 | printf '<%g>', 1; # prints "<1>" | |
5148 | printf '<%.10g>', 1; # prints "<1>" | |
5149 | printf '<%g>', 100; # prints "<100>" | |
5150 | printf '<%.1g>', 100; # prints "<1e+02>" | |
5151 | printf '<%.2g>', 100.01; # prints "<1e+02>" | |
5152 | printf '<%.5g>', 100.01; # prints "<100.01>" | |
5153 | printf '<%.4g>', 100.01; # prints "<100>" | |
5154 | ||
7b8dd722 HS |
5155 | For integer conversions, specifying a precision implies that the |
5156 | output of the number itself should be zero-padded to this width: | |
5157 | ||
5158 | printf '<%.6x>', 1; # prints "<000001>" | |
5159 | printf '<%#.6x>', 1; # prints "<0x000001>" | |
5160 | printf '<%-10.6x>', 1; # prints "<000001 >" | |
5161 | ||
5162 | For string conversions, specifying a precision truncates the string | |
5163 | to fit in the specified width: | |
5164 | ||
5165 | printf '<%.5s>', "truncated"; # prints "<trunc>" | |
5166 | printf '<%10.5s>', "truncated"; # prints "< trunc>" | |
5167 | ||
5168 | You can also get the precision from the next argument using C<.*>: | |
b22c7a20 | 5169 | |
7b8dd722 HS |
5170 | printf '<%.6x>', 1; # prints "<000001>" |
5171 | printf '<%.*x>', 6, 1; # prints "<000001>" | |
5172 | ||
5173 | You cannot currently get the precision from a specified number, | |
5174 | but it is intended that this will be possible in the future using | |
5175 | eg C<.*2$>: | |
5176 | ||
5177 | printf '<%.*2$x>', 1, 6; # INVALID, but in future will print "<000001>" | |
5178 | ||
5179 | =item size | |
5180 | ||
5181 | For numeric conversions, you can specify the size to interpret the | |
1ff2d182 AS |
5182 | number as using C<l>, C<h>, C<V>, C<q>, C<L>, or C<ll>. For integer |
5183 | conversions (C<d u o x X b i D U O>), numbers are usually assumed to be | |
5184 | whatever the default integer size is on your platform (usually 32 or 64 | |
5185 | bits), but you can override this to use instead one of the standard C types, | |
5186 | as supported by the compiler used to build Perl: | |
7b8dd722 HS |
5187 | |
5188 | l interpret integer as C type "long" or "unsigned long" | |
5189 | h interpret integer as C type "short" or "unsigned short" | |
1ff2d182 AS |
5190 | q, L or ll interpret integer as C type "long long", "unsigned long long". |
5191 | or "quads" (typically 64-bit integers) | |
7b8dd722 | 5192 | |
1ff2d182 AS |
5193 | The last will produce errors if Perl does not understand "quads" in your |
5194 | installation. (This requires that either the platform natively supports quads | |
5195 | or Perl was specifically compiled to support quads.) You can find out | |
5196 | whether your Perl supports quads via L<Config>: | |
7b8dd722 | 5197 | |
1ff2d182 AS |
5198 | use Config; |
5199 | ($Config{use64bitint} eq 'define' || $Config{longsize} >= 8) && | |
5200 | print "quads\n"; | |
5201 | ||
5202 | For floating point conversions (C<e f g E F G>), numbers are usually assumed | |
5203 | to be the default floating point size on your platform (double or long double), | |
5204 | but you can force 'long double' with C<q>, C<L>, or C<ll> if your | |
5205 | platform supports them. You can find out whether your Perl supports long | |
5206 | doubles via L<Config>: | |
5207 | ||
5208 | use Config; | |
5209 | $Config{d_longdbl} eq 'define' && print "long doubles\n"; | |
5210 | ||
5211 | You can find out whether Perl considers 'long double' to be the default | |
5212 | floating point size to use on your platform via L<Config>: | |
5213 | ||
5214 | use Config; | |
5215 | ($Config{uselongdouble} eq 'define') && | |
5216 | print "long doubles by default\n"; | |
5217 | ||
5218 | It can also be the case that long doubles and doubles are the same thing: | |
5219 | ||
5220 | use Config; | |
5221 | ($Config{doublesize} == $Config{longdblsize}) && | |
5222 | print "doubles are long doubles\n"; | |
5223 | ||
5224 | The size specifier C<V> has no effect for Perl code, but it is supported | |
7b8dd722 HS |
5225 | for compatibility with XS code; it means 'use the standard size for |
5226 | a Perl integer (or floating-point number)', which is already the | |
5227 | default for Perl code. | |
5228 | ||
a472f209 HS |
5229 | =item order of arguments |
5230 | ||
5231 | Normally, sprintf takes the next unused argument as the value to | |
5232 | format for each format specification. If the format specification | |
5233 | uses C<*> to require additional arguments, these are consumed from | |
5234 | the argument list in the order in which they appear in the format | |
5235 | specification I<before> the value to format. Where an argument is | |
5236 | specified using an explicit index, this does not affect the normal | |
5237 | order for the arguments (even when the explicitly specified index | |
5238 | would have been the next argument in any case). | |
5239 | ||
5240 | So: | |
5241 | ||
5242 | printf '<%*.*s>', $a, $b, $c; | |
5243 | ||
5244 | would use C<$a> for the width, C<$b> for the precision and C<$c> | |
5245 | as the value to format, while: | |
5246 | ||
5247 | print '<%*1$.*s>', $a, $b; | |
5248 | ||
5249 | would use C<$a> for the width and the precision, and C<$b> as the | |
5250 | value to format. | |
5251 | ||
5252 | Here are some more examples - beware that when using an explicit | |
5253 | index, the C<$> may need to be escaped: | |
5254 | ||
5255 | printf "%2\$d %d\n", 12, 34; # will print "34 12\n" | |
5256 | printf "%2\$d %d %d\n", 12, 34; # will print "34 12 34\n" | |
5257 | printf "%3\$d %d %d\n", 12, 34, 56; # will print "56 12 34\n" | |
5258 | printf "%2\$*3\$d %d\n", 12, 34, 3; # will print " 34 12\n" | |
5259 | ||
7b8dd722 | 5260 | =back |
b22c7a20 | 5261 | |
74a77017 CS |
5262 | If C<use locale> is in effect, the character used for the decimal |
5263 | point in formatted real numbers is affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale. | |
5264 | See L<perllocale>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5265 | |
5266 | =item sqrt EXPR | |
5267 | ||
54310121 | 5268 | =item sqrt |
bbce6d69 | 5269 | |
a0d0e21e | 5270 | Return the square root of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, returns square |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
5271 | root of C<$_>. Only works on non-negative operands, unless you've |
5272 | loaded the standard Math::Complex module. | |
5273 | ||
5274 | use Math::Complex; | |
5275 | print sqrt(-2); # prints 1.4142135623731i | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5276 | |
5277 | =item srand EXPR | |
5278 | ||
93dc8474 CS |
5279 | =item srand |
5280 | ||
0686c0b8 JH |
5281 | Sets the random number seed for the C<rand> operator. |
5282 | ||
0686c0b8 JH |
5283 | The point of the function is to "seed" the C<rand> function so that |
5284 | C<rand> can produce a different sequence each time you run your | |
e0b236fe | 5285 | program. |
0686c0b8 | 5286 | |
e0b236fe JH |
5287 | If srand() is not called explicitly, it is called implicitly at the |
5288 | first use of the C<rand> operator. However, this was not the case in | |
5289 | versions of Perl before 5.004, so if your script will run under older | |
5290 | Perl versions, it should call C<srand>. | |
93dc8474 | 5291 | |
e0b236fe JH |
5292 | Most programs won't even call srand() at all, except those that |
5293 | need a cryptographically-strong starting point rather than the | |
5294 | generally acceptable default, which is based on time of day, | |
5295 | process ID, and memory allocation, or the F</dev/urandom> device, | |
67408cae | 5296 | if available. |
9be67dbc | 5297 | |
e0b236fe JH |
5298 | You can call srand($seed) with the same $seed to reproduce the |
5299 | I<same> sequence from rand(), but this is usually reserved for | |
5300 | generating predictable results for testing or debugging. | |
5301 | Otherwise, don't call srand() more than once in your program. | |
0686c0b8 | 5302 | |
3a3e71eb JH |
5303 | Do B<not> call srand() (i.e. without an argument) more than once in |
5304 | a script. The internal state of the random number generator should | |
0686c0b8 | 5305 | contain more entropy than can be provided by any seed, so calling |
e0b236fe | 5306 | srand() again actually I<loses> randomness. |
0686c0b8 | 5307 | |
e0b236fe JH |
5308 | Most implementations of C<srand> take an integer and will silently |
5309 | truncate decimal numbers. This means C<srand(42)> will usually | |
5310 | produce the same results as C<srand(42.1)>. To be safe, always pass | |
5311 | C<srand> an integer. | |
0686c0b8 JH |
5312 | |
5313 | In versions of Perl prior to 5.004 the default seed was just the | |
5314 | current C<time>. This isn't a particularly good seed, so many old | |
5315 | programs supply their own seed value (often C<time ^ $$> or C<time ^ | |
5316 | ($$ + ($$ << 15))>), but that isn't necessary any more. | |
93dc8474 | 5317 | |
2f9daede TP |
5318 | Note that you need something much more random than the default seed for |
5319 | cryptographic purposes. Checksumming the compressed output of one or more | |
5320 | rapidly changing operating system status programs is the usual method. For | |
5321 | example: | |
28757baa | 5322 | |
5323 | srand (time ^ $$ ^ unpack "%L*", `ps axww | gzip`); | |
5324 | ||
7660c0ab | 5325 | If you're particularly concerned with this, see the C<Math::TrulyRandom> |
0078ec44 RS |
5326 | module in CPAN. |
5327 | ||
54310121 | 5328 | Frequently called programs (like CGI scripts) that simply use |
28757baa | 5329 | |
5330 | time ^ $$ | |
5331 | ||
54310121 | 5332 | for a seed can fall prey to the mathematical property that |
28757baa | 5333 | |
5334 | a^b == (a+1)^(b+1) | |
5335 | ||
0078ec44 | 5336 | one-third of the time. So don't do that. |
f86702cc | 5337 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5338 | =item stat FILEHANDLE |
5339 | ||
5340 | =item stat EXPR | |
5341 | ||
54310121 | 5342 | =item stat |
bbce6d69 | 5343 | |
1d2dff63 GS |
5344 | Returns a 13-element list giving the status info for a file, either |
5345 | the file opened via FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, | |
7660c0ab | 5346 | it stats C<$_>. Returns a null list if the stat fails. Typically used |
1d2dff63 | 5347 | as follows: |
a0d0e21e LW |
5348 | |
5349 | ($dev,$ino,$mode,$nlink,$uid,$gid,$rdev,$size, | |
5350 | $atime,$mtime,$ctime,$blksize,$blocks) | |
5351 | = stat($filename); | |
5352 | ||
54310121 | 5353 | Not all fields are supported on all filesystem types. Here are the |
c07a80fd | 5354 | meaning of the fields: |
5355 | ||
54310121 | 5356 | 0 dev device number of filesystem |
5357 | 1 ino inode number | |
5358 | 2 mode file mode (type and permissions) | |
5359 | 3 nlink number of (hard) links to the file | |
5360 | 4 uid numeric user ID of file's owner | |
5361 | 5 gid numeric group ID of file's owner | |
5362 | 6 rdev the device identifier (special files only) | |
5363 | 7 size total size of file, in bytes | |
1c74f1bd GS |
5364 | 8 atime last access time in seconds since the epoch |
5365 | 9 mtime last modify time in seconds since the epoch | |
df2a7e48 | 5366 | 10 ctime inode change time in seconds since the epoch (*) |
54310121 | 5367 | 11 blksize preferred block size for file system I/O |
5368 | 12 blocks actual number of blocks allocated | |
c07a80fd | 5369 | |
5370 | (The epoch was at 00:00 January 1, 1970 GMT.) | |
5371 | ||
df2a7e48 JH |
5372 | (*) The ctime field is non-portable, in particular you cannot expect |
5373 | it to be a "creation time", see L<perlport/"Files and Filesystems"> | |
5374 | for details. | |
5375 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
5376 | If stat is passed the special filehandle consisting of an underline, no |
5377 | stat is done, but the current contents of the stat structure from the | |
5378 | last stat or filetest are returned. Example: | |
5379 | ||
5380 | if (-x $file && (($d) = stat(_)) && $d < 0) { | |
5381 | print "$file is executable NFS file\n"; | |
5382 | } | |
5383 | ||
ca6e1c26 JH |
5384 | (This works on machines only for which the device number is negative |
5385 | under NFS.) | |
a0d0e21e | 5386 | |
2b5ab1e7 | 5387 | Because the mode contains both the file type and its permissions, you |
b76cc8ba | 5388 | should mask off the file type portion and (s)printf using a C<"%o"> |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
5389 | if you want to see the real permissions. |
5390 | ||
5391 | $mode = (stat($filename))[2]; | |
5392 | printf "Permissions are %04o\n", $mode & 07777; | |
5393 | ||
19799a22 | 5394 | In scalar context, C<stat> returns a boolean value indicating success |
1d2dff63 GS |
5395 | or failure, and, if successful, sets the information associated with |
5396 | the special filehandle C<_>. | |
5397 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
5398 | The File::stat module provides a convenient, by-name access mechanism: |
5399 | ||
5400 | use File::stat; | |
5401 | $sb = stat($filename); | |
b76cc8ba | 5402 | printf "File is %s, size is %s, perm %04o, mtime %s\n", |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
5403 | $filename, $sb->size, $sb->mode & 07777, |
5404 | scalar localtime $sb->mtime; | |
5405 | ||
ca6e1c26 JH |
5406 | You can import symbolic mode constants (C<S_IF*>) and functions |
5407 | (C<S_IS*>) from the Fcntl module: | |
5408 | ||
5409 | use Fcntl ':mode'; | |
5410 | ||
5411 | $mode = (stat($filename))[2]; | |
5412 | ||
5413 | $user_rwx = ($mode & S_IRWXU) >> 6; | |
5414 | $group_read = ($mode & S_IRGRP) >> 3; | |
5415 | $other_execute = $mode & S_IXOTH; | |
5416 | ||
3155e0b0 | 5417 | printf "Permissions are %04o\n", S_IMODE($mode), "\n"; |
ca6e1c26 JH |
5418 | |
5419 | $is_setuid = $mode & S_ISUID; | |
5420 | $is_setgid = S_ISDIR($mode); | |
5421 | ||
5422 | You could write the last two using the C<-u> and C<-d> operators. | |
5423 | The commonly available S_IF* constants are | |
5424 | ||
5425 | # Permissions: read, write, execute, for user, group, others. | |
5426 | ||
5427 | S_IRWXU S_IRUSR S_IWUSR S_IXUSR | |
5428 | S_IRWXG S_IRGRP S_IWGRP S_IXGRP | |
5429 | S_IRWXO S_IROTH S_IWOTH S_IXOTH | |
61eff3bc | 5430 | |
3cee8101 RGS |
5431 | # Setuid/Setgid/Stickiness/SaveText. |
5432 | # Note that the exact meaning of these is system dependent. | |
ca6e1c26 JH |
5433 | |
5434 | S_ISUID S_ISGID S_ISVTX S_ISTXT | |
5435 | ||
5436 | # File types. Not necessarily all are available on your system. | |
5437 | ||
5438 | S_IFREG S_IFDIR S_IFLNK S_IFBLK S_ISCHR S_IFIFO S_IFSOCK S_IFWHT S_ENFMT | |
5439 | ||
5440 | # The following are compatibility aliases for S_IRUSR, S_IWUSR, S_IXUSR. | |
5441 | ||
5442 | S_IREAD S_IWRITE S_IEXEC | |
5443 | ||
5444 | and the S_IF* functions are | |
5445 | ||
3155e0b0 | 5446 | S_IMODE($mode) the part of $mode containing the permission bits |
ca6e1c26 JH |
5447 | and the setuid/setgid/sticky bits |
5448 | ||
5449 | S_IFMT($mode) the part of $mode containing the file type | |
b76cc8ba | 5450 | which can be bit-anded with e.g. S_IFREG |
ca6e1c26 JH |
5451 | or with the following functions |
5452 | ||
5453 | # The operators -f, -d, -l, -b, -c, -p, and -s. | |
5454 | ||
5455 | S_ISREG($mode) S_ISDIR($mode) S_ISLNK($mode) | |
5456 | S_ISBLK($mode) S_ISCHR($mode) S_ISFIFO($mode) S_ISSOCK($mode) | |
5457 | ||
5458 | # No direct -X operator counterpart, but for the first one | |
5459 | # the -g operator is often equivalent. The ENFMT stands for | |
5460 | # record flocking enforcement, a platform-dependent feature. | |
5461 | ||
5462 | S_ISENFMT($mode) S_ISWHT($mode) | |
5463 | ||
5464 | See your native chmod(2) and stat(2) documentation for more details | |
c837d5b4 DP |
5465 | about the S_* constants. To get status info for a symbolic link |
5466 | instead of the target file behind the link, use the C<lstat> function. | |
ca6e1c26 | 5467 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5468 | =item study SCALAR |
5469 | ||
5470 | =item study | |
5471 | ||
184e9718 | 5472 | Takes extra time to study SCALAR (C<$_> if unspecified) in anticipation of |
a0d0e21e LW |
5473 | doing many pattern matches on the string before it is next modified. |
5474 | This may or may not save time, depending on the nature and number of | |
5475 | patterns you are searching on, and on the distribution of character | |
19799a22 | 5476 | frequencies in the string to be searched--you probably want to compare |
5f05dabc | 5477 | run times with and without it to see which runs faster. Those loops |
a0d0e21e LW |
5478 | which scan for many short constant strings (including the constant |
5479 | parts of more complex patterns) will benefit most. You may have only | |
19799a22 GS |
5480 | one C<study> active at a time--if you study a different scalar the first |
5481 | is "unstudied". (The way C<study> works is this: a linked list of every | |
a0d0e21e | 5482 | character in the string to be searched is made, so we know, for |
7660c0ab | 5483 | example, where all the C<'k'> characters are. From each search string, |
a0d0e21e LW |
5484 | the rarest character is selected, based on some static frequency tables |
5485 | constructed from some C programs and English text. Only those places | |
5486 | that contain this "rarest" character are examined.) | |
5487 | ||
5a964f20 | 5488 | For example, here is a loop that inserts index producing entries |
a0d0e21e LW |
5489 | before any line containing a certain pattern: |
5490 | ||
5491 | while (<>) { | |
5492 | study; | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
5493 | print ".IX foo\n" if /\bfoo\b/; |
5494 | print ".IX bar\n" if /\bbar\b/; | |
5495 | print ".IX blurfl\n" if /\bblurfl\b/; | |
5a964f20 | 5496 | # ... |
a0d0e21e LW |
5497 | print; |
5498 | } | |
5499 | ||
951ba7fe GS |
5500 | In searching for C</\bfoo\b/>, only those locations in C<$_> that contain C<f> |
5501 | will be looked at, because C<f> is rarer than C<o>. In general, this is | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5502 | a big win except in pathological cases. The only question is whether |
5503 | it saves you more time than it took to build the linked list in the | |
5504 | first place. | |
5505 | ||
5506 | Note that if you have to look for strings that you don't know till | |
19799a22 | 5507 | runtime, you can build an entire loop as a string and C<eval> that to |
a0d0e21e | 5508 | avoid recompiling all your patterns all the time. Together with |
7660c0ab | 5509 | undefining C<$/> to input entire files as one record, this can be very |
f86cebdf | 5510 | fast, often faster than specialized programs like fgrep(1). The following |
184e9718 | 5511 | scans a list of files (C<@files>) for a list of words (C<@words>), and prints |
a0d0e21e LW |
5512 | out the names of those files that contain a match: |
5513 | ||
5514 | $search = 'while (<>) { study;'; | |
5515 | foreach $word (@words) { | |
5516 | $search .= "++\$seen{\$ARGV} if /\\b$word\\b/;\n"; | |
5517 | } | |
5518 | $search .= "}"; | |
5519 | @ARGV = @files; | |
5520 | undef $/; | |
5521 | eval $search; # this screams | |
5f05dabc | 5522 | $/ = "\n"; # put back to normal input delimiter |
a0d0e21e LW |
5523 | foreach $file (sort keys(%seen)) { |
5524 | print $file, "\n"; | |
5525 | } | |
5526 | ||
1d2de774 | 5527 | =item sub NAME BLOCK |
cb1a09d0 | 5528 | |
1d2de774 | 5529 | =item sub NAME (PROTO) BLOCK |
cb1a09d0 | 5530 | |
1d2de774 JH |
5531 | =item sub NAME : ATTRS BLOCK |
5532 | ||
5533 | =item sub NAME (PROTO) : ATTRS BLOCK | |
5534 | ||
5535 | This is subroutine definition, not a real function I<per se>. | |
5536 | Without a BLOCK it's just a forward declaration. Without a NAME, | |
5537 | it's an anonymous function declaration, and does actually return | |
5538 | a value: the CODE ref of the closure you just created. | |
cb1a09d0 | 5539 | |
1d2de774 | 5540 | See L<perlsub> and L<perlref> for details about subroutines and |
0795dc2b | 5541 | references, and L<attributes> and L<Attribute::Handlers> for more |
1d2de774 | 5542 | information about attributes. |
cb1a09d0 | 5543 | |
87275199 | 5544 | =item substr EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH,REPLACEMENT |
7b8d334a | 5545 | |
87275199 | 5546 | =item substr EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH |
a0d0e21e LW |
5547 | |
5548 | =item substr EXPR,OFFSET | |
5549 | ||
5550 | Extracts a substring out of EXPR and returns it. First character is at | |
7660c0ab | 5551 | offset C<0>, or whatever you've set C<$[> to (but don't do that). |
84902520 | 5552 | If OFFSET is negative (or more precisely, less than C<$[>), starts |
87275199 GS |
5553 | that far from the end of the string. If LENGTH is omitted, returns |
5554 | everything to the end of the string. If LENGTH is negative, leaves that | |
748a9306 LW |
5555 | many characters off the end of the string. |
5556 | ||
2b5ab1e7 | 5557 | You can use the substr() function as an lvalue, in which case EXPR |
87275199 GS |
5558 | must itself be an lvalue. If you assign something shorter than LENGTH, |
5559 | the string will shrink, and if you assign something longer than LENGTH, | |
2b5ab1e7 | 5560 | the string will grow to accommodate it. To keep the string the same |
19799a22 | 5561 | length you may need to pad or chop your value using C<sprintf>. |
a0d0e21e | 5562 | |
87275199 GS |
5563 | If OFFSET and LENGTH specify a substring that is partly outside the |
5564 | string, only the part within the string is returned. If the substring | |
5565 | is beyond either end of the string, substr() returns the undefined | |
5566 | value and produces a warning. When used as an lvalue, specifying a | |
5567 | substring that is entirely outside the string is a fatal error. | |
5568 | Here's an example showing the behavior for boundary cases: | |
5569 | ||
5570 | my $name = 'fred'; | |
5571 | substr($name, 4) = 'dy'; # $name is now 'freddy' | |
5572 | my $null = substr $name, 6, 2; # returns '' (no warning) | |
5573 | my $oops = substr $name, 7; # returns undef, with warning | |
5574 | substr($name, 7) = 'gap'; # fatal error | |
5575 | ||
2b5ab1e7 | 5576 | An alternative to using substr() as an lvalue is to specify the |
7b8d334a | 5577 | replacement string as the 4th argument. This allows you to replace |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
5578 | parts of the EXPR and return what was there before in one operation, |
5579 | just as you can with splice(). | |
7b8d334a | 5580 | |
c67bbae0 YST |
5581 | If the lvalue returned by substr is used after the EXPR is changed in |
5582 | any way, the behaviour may not be as expected and is subject to change. | |
5583 | This caveat includes code such as C<print(substr($foo,$a,$b)=$bar)> or | |
5584 | C<(substr($foo,$a,$b)=$bar)=$fud> (where $foo is changed via the | |
5585 | substring assignment, and then the substr is used again), or where a | |
5586 | substr() is aliased via a C<foreach> loop or passed as a parameter or | |
5587 | a reference to it is taken and then the alias, parameter, or deref'd | |
5588 | reference either is used after the original EXPR has been changed or | |
5589 | is assigned to and then used a second time. | |
5590 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
5591 | =item symlink OLDFILE,NEWFILE |
5592 | ||
5593 | Creates a new filename symbolically linked to the old filename. | |
7660c0ab | 5594 | Returns C<1> for success, C<0> otherwise. On systems that don't support |
a0d0e21e LW |
5595 | symbolic links, produces a fatal error at run time. To check for that, |
5596 | use eval: | |
5597 | ||
2b5ab1e7 | 5598 | $symlink_exists = eval { symlink("",""); 1 }; |
a0d0e21e | 5599 | |
5702da47 | 5600 | =item syscall NUMBER, LIST |
a0d0e21e LW |
5601 | |
5602 | Calls the system call specified as the first element of the list, | |
5603 | passing the remaining elements as arguments to the system call. If | |
5604 | unimplemented, produces a fatal error. The arguments are interpreted | |
5605 | as follows: if a given argument is numeric, the argument is passed as | |
5606 | an int. If not, the pointer to the string value is passed. You are | |
5607 | responsible to make sure a string is pre-extended long enough to | |
a3cb178b | 5608 | receive any result that might be written into a string. You can't use a |
19799a22 | 5609 | string literal (or other read-only string) as an argument to C<syscall> |
a3cb178b GS |
5610 | because Perl has to assume that any string pointer might be written |
5611 | through. If your | |
a0d0e21e | 5612 | integer arguments are not literals and have never been interpreted in a |
7660c0ab | 5613 | numeric context, you may need to add C<0> to them to force them to look |
19799a22 | 5614 | like numbers. This emulates the C<syswrite> function (or vice versa): |
a0d0e21e LW |
5615 | |
5616 | require 'syscall.ph'; # may need to run h2ph | |
a3cb178b GS |
5617 | $s = "hi there\n"; |
5618 | syscall(&SYS_write, fileno(STDOUT), $s, length $s); | |
a0d0e21e | 5619 | |
5f05dabc | 5620 | Note that Perl supports passing of up to only 14 arguments to your system call, |
a0d0e21e LW |
5621 | which in practice should usually suffice. |
5622 | ||
fb73857a | 5623 | Syscall returns whatever value returned by the system call it calls. |
19799a22 | 5624 | If the system call fails, C<syscall> returns C<-1> and sets C<$!> (errno). |
7660c0ab | 5625 | Note that some system calls can legitimately return C<-1>. The proper |
fb73857a | 5626 | way to handle such calls is to assign C<$!=0;> before the call and |
7660c0ab | 5627 | check the value of C<$!> if syscall returns C<-1>. |
fb73857a | 5628 | |
5629 | There's a problem with C<syscall(&SYS_pipe)>: it returns the file | |
5630 | number of the read end of the pipe it creates. There is no way | |
b76cc8ba | 5631 | to retrieve the file number of the other end. You can avoid this |
19799a22 | 5632 | problem by using C<pipe> instead. |
fb73857a | 5633 | |
c07a80fd | 5634 | =item sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE |
5635 | ||
5636 | =item sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE,PERMS | |
5637 | ||
5638 | Opens the file whose filename is given by FILENAME, and associates it | |
5639 | with FILEHANDLE. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is used as | |
5640 | the name of the real filehandle wanted. This function calls the | |
19799a22 | 5641 | underlying operating system's C<open> function with the parameters |
c07a80fd | 5642 | FILENAME, MODE, PERMS. |
5643 | ||
5644 | The possible values and flag bits of the MODE parameter are | |
5645 | system-dependent; they are available via the standard module C<Fcntl>. | |
ea2b5ef6 JH |
5646 | See the documentation of your operating system's C<open> to see which |
5647 | values and flag bits are available. You may combine several flags | |
5648 | using the C<|>-operator. | |
5649 | ||
5650 | Some of the most common values are C<O_RDONLY> for opening the file in | |
5651 | read-only mode, C<O_WRONLY> for opening the file in write-only mode, | |
5652 | and C<O_RDWR> for opening the file in read-write mode, and. | |
5653 | ||
adf5897a DF |
5654 | For historical reasons, some values work on almost every system |
5655 | supported by perl: zero means read-only, one means write-only, and two | |
5656 | means read/write. We know that these values do I<not> work under | |
7c5ffed3 | 5657 | OS/390 & VM/ESA Unix and on the Macintosh; you probably don't want to |
4af147f6 | 5658 | use them in new code. |
c07a80fd | 5659 | |
19799a22 | 5660 | If the file named by FILENAME does not exist and the C<open> call creates |
7660c0ab | 5661 | it (typically because MODE includes the C<O_CREAT> flag), then the value of |
5a964f20 | 5662 | PERMS specifies the permissions of the newly created file. If you omit |
19799a22 | 5663 | the PERMS argument to C<sysopen>, Perl uses the octal value C<0666>. |
5a964f20 | 5664 | These permission values need to be in octal, and are modified by your |
0591cd52 NT |
5665 | process's current C<umask>. |
5666 | ||
ea2b5ef6 JH |
5667 | In many systems the C<O_EXCL> flag is available for opening files in |
5668 | exclusive mode. This is B<not> locking: exclusiveness means here that | |
5669 | if the file already exists, sysopen() fails. The C<O_EXCL> wins | |
5670 | C<O_TRUNC>. | |
5671 | ||
5672 | Sometimes you may want to truncate an already-existing file: C<O_TRUNC>. | |
5673 | ||
19799a22 | 5674 | You should seldom if ever use C<0644> as argument to C<sysopen>, because |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
5675 | that takes away the user's option to have a more permissive umask. |
5676 | Better to omit it. See the perlfunc(1) entry on C<umask> for more | |
5677 | on this. | |
c07a80fd | 5678 | |
4af147f6 CS |
5679 | Note that C<sysopen> depends on the fdopen() C library function. |
5680 | On many UNIX systems, fdopen() is known to fail when file descriptors | |
5681 | exceed a certain value, typically 255. If you need more file | |
5682 | descriptors than that, consider rebuilding Perl to use the C<sfio> | |
5683 | library, or perhaps using the POSIX::open() function. | |
5684 | ||
2b5ab1e7 | 5685 | See L<perlopentut> for a kinder, gentler explanation of opening files. |
28757baa | 5686 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5687 | =item sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET |
5688 | ||
5689 | =item sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH | |
5690 | ||
3874323d JH |
5691 | Attempts to read LENGTH bytes of data into variable SCALAR from the |
5692 | specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call read(2). It bypasses | |
5693 | buffered IO, so mixing this with other kinds of reads, C<print>, | |
5694 | C<write>, C<seek>, C<tell>, or C<eof> can cause confusion because the | |
5695 | perlio or stdio layers usually buffers data. Returns the number of | |
5696 | bytes actually read, C<0> at end of file, or undef if there was an | |
5697 | error (in the latter case C<$!> is also set). SCALAR will be grown or | |
5698 | shrunk so that the last byte actually read is the last byte of the | |
5699 | scalar after the read. | |
ff68c719 | 5700 | |
5701 | An OFFSET may be specified to place the read data at some place in the | |
5702 | string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies | |
9124316e JH |
5703 | placement at that many characters counting backwards from the end of |
5704 | the string. A positive OFFSET greater than the length of SCALAR | |
5705 | results in the string being padded to the required size with C<"\0"> | |
5706 | bytes before the result of the read is appended. | |
a0d0e21e | 5707 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
5708 | There is no syseof() function, which is ok, since eof() doesn't work |
5709 | very well on device files (like ttys) anyway. Use sysread() and check | |
19799a22 | 5710 | for a return value for 0 to decide whether you're done. |
2b5ab1e7 | 5711 | |
3874323d JH |
5712 | Note that if the filehandle has been marked as C<:utf8> Unicode |
5713 | characters are read instead of bytes (the LENGTH, OFFSET, and the | |
5eadf7c5 | 5714 | return value of sysread() are in Unicode characters). |
3874323d JH |
5715 | The C<:encoding(...)> layer implicitly introduces the C<:utf8> layer. |
5716 | See L</binmode>, L</open>, and the C<open> pragma, L<open>. | |
5717 | ||
137443ea | 5718 | =item sysseek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE |
5719 | ||
3874323d | 5720 | Sets FILEHANDLE's system position in bytes using the system call |
9124316e JH |
5721 | lseek(2). FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name |
5722 | of the filehandle. The values for WHENCE are C<0> to set the new | |
5723 | position to POSITION, C<1> to set the it to the current position plus | |
5724 | POSITION, and C<2> to set it to EOF plus POSITION (typically | |
5725 | negative). | |
5726 | ||
5727 | Note the I<in bytes>: even if the filehandle has been set to operate | |
fae2c0fb | 5728 | on characters (for example by using the C<:utf8> I/O layer), tell() |
9124316e JH |
5729 | will return byte offsets, not character offsets (because implementing |
5730 | that would render sysseek() very slow). | |
5731 | ||
3874323d | 5732 | sysseek() bypasses normal buffered IO, so mixing this with reads (other |
9124316e JH |
5733 | than C<sysread>, for example >< or read()) C<print>, C<write>, |
5734 | C<seek>, C<tell>, or C<eof> may cause confusion. | |
86989e5d JH |
5735 | |
5736 | For WHENCE, you may also use the constants C<SEEK_SET>, C<SEEK_CUR>, | |
5737 | and C<SEEK_END> (start of the file, current position, end of the file) | |
5738 | from the Fcntl module. Use of the constants is also more portable | |
5739 | than relying on 0, 1, and 2. For example to define a "systell" function: | |
5740 | ||
554ad1fc | 5741 | use Fcntl 'SEEK_CUR'; |
86989e5d | 5742 | sub systell { sysseek($_[0], 0, SEEK_CUR) } |
8903cb82 | 5743 | |
5744 | Returns the new position, or the undefined value on failure. A position | |
19799a22 GS |
5745 | of zero is returned as the string C<"0 but true">; thus C<sysseek> returns |
5746 | true on success and false on failure, yet you can still easily determine | |
8903cb82 | 5747 | the new position. |
137443ea | 5748 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5749 | =item system LIST |
5750 | ||
8bf3b016 GS |
5751 | =item system PROGRAM LIST |
5752 | ||
19799a22 GS |
5753 | Does exactly the same thing as C<exec LIST>, except that a fork is |
5754 | done first, and the parent process waits for the child process to | |
5755 | complete. Note that argument processing varies depending on the | |
5756 | number of arguments. If there is more than one argument in LIST, | |
5757 | or if LIST is an array with more than one value, starts the program | |
5758 | given by the first element of the list with arguments given by the | |
5759 | rest of the list. If there is only one scalar argument, the argument | |
5760 | is checked for shell metacharacters, and if there are any, the | |
5761 | entire argument is passed to the system's command shell for parsing | |
5762 | (this is C</bin/sh -c> on Unix platforms, but varies on other | |
5763 | platforms). If there are no shell metacharacters in the argument, | |
5764 | it is split into words and passed directly to C<execvp>, which is | |
5765 | more efficient. | |
5766 | ||
0f897271 GS |
5767 | Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for |
5768 | output before any operation that may do a fork, but this may not be | |
5769 | supported on some platforms (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need | |
5770 | to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method | |
5771 | of C<IO::Handle> on any open handles. | |
a2008d6d | 5772 | |
9d6eb86e | 5773 | The return value is the exit status of the program as returned by the |
7717d0e7 | 5774 | C<wait> call. To get the actual exit value shift right by eight (see below). |
9d6eb86e | 5775 | See also L</exec>. This is I<not> what you want to use to capture |
54310121 | 5776 | the output from a command, for that you should use merely backticks or |
d5a9bfb0 IZ |
5777 | C<qx//>, as described in L<perlop/"`STRING`">. Return value of -1 |
5778 | indicates a failure to start the program (inspect $! for the reason). | |
a0d0e21e | 5779 | |
19799a22 GS |
5780 | Like C<exec>, C<system> allows you to lie to a program about its name if |
5781 | you use the C<system PROGRAM LIST> syntax. Again, see L</exec>. | |
8bf3b016 | 5782 | |
4c2e8b59 BD |
5783 | Since C<SIGINT> and C<SIGQUIT> are ignored during the execution of |
5784 | C<system>, if you expect your program to terminate on receipt of these | |
5785 | signals you will need to arrange to do so yourself based on the return | |
5786 | value. | |
28757baa | 5787 | |
5788 | @args = ("command", "arg1", "arg2"); | |
54310121 | 5789 | system(@args) == 0 |
5790 | or die "system @args failed: $?" | |
28757baa | 5791 | |
5a964f20 TC |
5792 | You can check all the failure possibilities by inspecting |
5793 | C<$?> like this: | |
28757baa | 5794 | |
4ef107a6 DM |
5795 | if ($? == -1) { |
5796 | print "failed to execute: $!\n"; | |
5797 | } | |
5798 | elsif ($? & 127) { | |
5799 | printf "child died with signal %d, %s coredump\n", | |
5800 | ($? & 127), ($? & 128) ? 'with' : 'without'; | |
5801 | } | |
5802 | else { | |
5803 | printf "child exited with value %d\n", $? >> 8; | |
5804 | } | |
5805 | ||
7717d0e7 | 5806 | or more portably by using the W*() calls of the POSIX extension; |
9d6eb86e JH |
5807 | see L<perlport> for more information. |
5808 | ||
c8db1d39 TC |
5809 | When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results |
5810 | and return codes will be subject to its quirks and capabilities. | |
5811 | See L<perlop/"`STRING`"> and L</exec> for details. | |
bb32b41a | 5812 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5813 | =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET |
5814 | ||
5815 | =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH | |
5816 | ||
145d37e2 GA |
5817 | =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR |
5818 | ||
3874323d JH |
5819 | Attempts to write LENGTH bytes of data from variable SCALAR to the |
5820 | specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call write(2). If LENGTH is | |
5821 | not specified, writes whole SCALAR. It bypasses buffered IO, so | |
9124316e | 5822 | mixing this with reads (other than C<sysread())>, C<print>, C<write>, |
3874323d JH |
5823 | C<seek>, C<tell>, or C<eof> may cause confusion because the perlio and |
5824 | stdio layers usually buffers data. Returns the number of bytes | |
5825 | actually written, or C<undef> if there was an error (in this case the | |
5826 | errno variable C<$!> is also set). If the LENGTH is greater than the | |
5827 | available data in the SCALAR after the OFFSET, only as much data as is | |
5828 | available will be written. | |
ff68c719 | 5829 | |
5830 | An OFFSET may be specified to write the data from some part of the | |
5831 | string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies writing | |
9124316e JH |
5832 | that many characters counting backwards from the end of the string. |
5833 | In the case the SCALAR is empty you can use OFFSET but only zero offset. | |
5834 | ||
1d714267 JH |
5835 | Note that if the filehandle has been marked as C<:utf8>, Unicode |
5836 | characters are written instead of bytes (the LENGTH, OFFSET, and the | |
5837 | return value of syswrite() are in UTF-8 encoded Unicode characters). | |
3874323d JH |
5838 | The C<:encoding(...)> layer implicitly introduces the C<:utf8> layer. |
5839 | See L</binmode>, L</open>, and the C<open> pragma, L<open>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5840 | |
5841 | =item tell FILEHANDLE | |
5842 | ||
5843 | =item tell | |
5844 | ||
9124316e JH |
5845 | Returns the current position I<in bytes> for FILEHANDLE, or -1 on |
5846 | error. FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of | |
5847 | the actual filehandle. If FILEHANDLE is omitted, assumes the file | |
5848 | last read. | |
5849 | ||
5850 | Note the I<in bytes>: even if the filehandle has been set to | |
5851 | operate on characters (for example by using the C<:utf8> open | |
fae2c0fb | 5852 | layer), tell() will return byte offsets, not character offsets |
9124316e | 5853 | (because that would render seek() and tell() rather slow). |
2b5ab1e7 | 5854 | |
cfd73201 JH |
5855 | The return value of tell() for the standard streams like the STDIN |
5856 | depends on the operating system: it may return -1 or something else. | |
5857 | tell() on pipes, fifos, and sockets usually returns -1. | |
5858 | ||
19799a22 | 5859 | There is no C<systell> function. Use C<sysseek(FH, 0, 1)> for that. |
a0d0e21e | 5860 | |
9124316e JH |
5861 | Do not use tell() on a filehandle that has been opened using |
5862 | sysopen(), use sysseek() for that as described above. Why? Because | |
5863 | sysopen() creates unbuffered, "raw", filehandles, while open() creates | |
5864 | buffered filehandles. sysseek() make sense only on the first kind, | |
5865 | tell() only makes sense on the second kind. | |
5866 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
5867 | =item telldir DIRHANDLE |
5868 | ||
19799a22 GS |
5869 | Returns the current position of the C<readdir> routines on DIRHANDLE. |
5870 | Value may be given to C<seekdir> to access a particular location in a | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5871 | directory. Has the same caveats about possible directory compaction as |
5872 | the corresponding system library routine. | |
5873 | ||
4633a7c4 | 5874 | =item tie VARIABLE,CLASSNAME,LIST |
a0d0e21e | 5875 | |
4633a7c4 LW |
5876 | This function binds a variable to a package class that will provide the |
5877 | implementation for the variable. VARIABLE is the name of the variable | |
5878 | to be enchanted. CLASSNAME is the name of a class implementing objects | |
19799a22 | 5879 | of correct type. Any additional arguments are passed to the C<new> |
8a059744 GS |
5880 | method of the class (meaning C<TIESCALAR>, C<TIEHANDLE>, C<TIEARRAY>, |
5881 | or C<TIEHASH>). Typically these are arguments such as might be passed | |
19799a22 GS |
5882 | to the C<dbm_open()> function of C. The object returned by the C<new> |
5883 | method is also returned by the C<tie> function, which would be useful | |
8a059744 | 5884 | if you want to access other methods in CLASSNAME. |
a0d0e21e | 5885 | |
19799a22 | 5886 | Note that functions such as C<keys> and C<values> may return huge lists |
1d2dff63 | 5887 | when used on large objects, like DBM files. You may prefer to use the |
19799a22 | 5888 | C<each> function to iterate over such. Example: |
a0d0e21e LW |
5889 | |
5890 | # print out history file offsets | |
4633a7c4 | 5891 | use NDBM_File; |
da0045b7 | 5892 | tie(%HIST, 'NDBM_File', '/usr/lib/news/history', 1, 0); |
a0d0e21e LW |
5893 | while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) { |
5894 | print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n"; | |
5895 | } | |
5896 | untie(%HIST); | |
5897 | ||
aa689395 | 5898 | A class implementing a hash should have the following methods: |
a0d0e21e | 5899 | |
4633a7c4 | 5900 | TIEHASH classname, LIST |
a0d0e21e LW |
5901 | FETCH this, key |
5902 | STORE this, key, value | |
5903 | DELETE this, key | |
8a059744 | 5904 | CLEAR this |
a0d0e21e LW |
5905 | EXISTS this, key |
5906 | FIRSTKEY this | |
5907 | NEXTKEY this, lastkey | |
a3bcc51e | 5908 | SCALAR this |
8a059744 | 5909 | DESTROY this |
d7da42b7 | 5910 | UNTIE this |
a0d0e21e | 5911 | |
4633a7c4 | 5912 | A class implementing an ordinary array should have the following methods: |
a0d0e21e | 5913 | |
4633a7c4 | 5914 | TIEARRAY classname, LIST |
a0d0e21e LW |
5915 | FETCH this, key |
5916 | STORE this, key, value | |
8a059744 GS |
5917 | FETCHSIZE this |
5918 | STORESIZE this, count | |
5919 | CLEAR this | |
5920 | PUSH this, LIST | |
5921 | POP this | |
5922 | SHIFT this | |
5923 | UNSHIFT this, LIST | |
5924 | SPLICE this, offset, length, LIST | |
5925 | EXTEND this, count | |
5926 | DESTROY this | |
d7da42b7 | 5927 | UNTIE this |
8a059744 GS |
5928 | |
5929 | A class implementing a file handle should have the following methods: | |
5930 | ||
5931 | TIEHANDLE classname, LIST | |
5932 | READ this, scalar, length, offset | |
5933 | READLINE this | |
5934 | GETC this | |
5935 | WRITE this, scalar, length, offset | |
5936 | PRINT this, LIST | |
5937 | PRINTF this, format, LIST | |
e08f2115 GA |
5938 | BINMODE this |
5939 | EOF this | |
5940 | FILENO this | |
5941 | SEEK this, position, whence | |
5942 | TELL this | |
5943 | OPEN this, mode, LIST | |
8a059744 GS |
5944 | CLOSE this |
5945 | DESTROY this | |
d7da42b7 | 5946 | UNTIE this |
a0d0e21e | 5947 | |
4633a7c4 | 5948 | A class implementing a scalar should have the following methods: |
a0d0e21e | 5949 | |
4633a7c4 | 5950 | TIESCALAR classname, LIST |
54310121 | 5951 | FETCH this, |
a0d0e21e | 5952 | STORE this, value |
8a059744 | 5953 | DESTROY this |
d7da42b7 | 5954 | UNTIE this |
8a059744 GS |
5955 | |
5956 | Not all methods indicated above need be implemented. See L<perltie>, | |
2b5ab1e7 | 5957 | L<Tie::Hash>, L<Tie::Array>, L<Tie::Scalar>, and L<Tie::Handle>. |
a0d0e21e | 5958 | |
19799a22 | 5959 | Unlike C<dbmopen>, the C<tie> function will not use or require a module |
4633a7c4 | 5960 | for you--you need to do that explicitly yourself. See L<DB_File> |
19799a22 | 5961 | or the F<Config> module for interesting C<tie> implementations. |
4633a7c4 | 5962 | |
b687b08b | 5963 | For further details see L<perltie>, L<"tied VARIABLE">. |
cc6b7395 | 5964 | |
f3cbc334 RS |
5965 | =item tied VARIABLE |
5966 | ||
5967 | Returns a reference to the object underlying VARIABLE (the same value | |
19799a22 | 5968 | that was originally returned by the C<tie> call that bound the variable |
f3cbc334 RS |
5969 | to a package.) Returns the undefined value if VARIABLE isn't tied to a |
5970 | package. | |
5971 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
5972 | =item time |
5973 | ||
da0045b7 | 5974 | Returns the number of non-leap seconds since whatever time the system |
8939ba94 | 5975 | considers to be the epoch (that's 00:00:00, January 1, 1904 for Mac OS, |
da0045b7 | 5976 | and 00:00:00 UTC, January 1, 1970 for most other systems). |
19799a22 | 5977 | Suitable for feeding to C<gmtime> and C<localtime>. |
a0d0e21e | 5978 | |
68f8bed4 | 5979 | For measuring time in better granularity than one second, |
c5f9c75a RGS |
5980 | you may use either the Time::HiRes module (from CPAN, and starting from |
5981 | Perl 5.8 part of the standard distribution), or if you have | |
5982 | gettimeofday(2), you may be able to use the C<syscall> interface of Perl. | |
5983 | See L<perlfaq8> for details. | |
68f8bed4 | 5984 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
5985 | =item times |
5986 | ||
1d2dff63 | 5987 | Returns a four-element list giving the user and system times, in |
a0d0e21e LW |
5988 | seconds, for this process and the children of this process. |
5989 | ||
5990 | ($user,$system,$cuser,$csystem) = times; | |
5991 | ||
dc19f4fb MJD |
5992 | In scalar context, C<times> returns C<$user>. |
5993 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
5994 | =item tr/// |
5995 | ||
19799a22 | 5996 | The transliteration operator. Same as C<y///>. See L<perlop>. |
a0d0e21e LW |
5997 | |
5998 | =item truncate FILEHANDLE,LENGTH | |
5999 | ||
6000 | =item truncate EXPR,LENGTH | |
6001 | ||
6002 | Truncates the file opened on FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR, to the | |
6003 | specified length. Produces a fatal error if truncate isn't implemented | |
19799a22 | 6004 | on your system. Returns true if successful, the undefined value |
a3cb178b | 6005 | otherwise. |
a0d0e21e | 6006 | |
90ddc76f MS |
6007 | The behavior is undefined if LENGTH is greater than the length of the |
6008 | file. | |
6009 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
6010 | =item uc EXPR |
6011 | ||
54310121 | 6012 | =item uc |
bbce6d69 | 6013 | |
a0d0e21e | 6014 | Returns an uppercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function |
ad0029c4 JH |
6015 | implementing the C<\U> escape in double-quoted strings. Respects |
6016 | current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale> | |
983ffd37 JH |
6017 | and L<perlunicode> for more details about locale and Unicode support. |
6018 | It does not attempt to do titlecase mapping on initial letters. See | |
6019 | C<ucfirst> for that. | |
a0d0e21e | 6020 | |
7660c0ab | 6021 | If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. |
bbce6d69 | 6022 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6023 | =item ucfirst EXPR |
6024 | ||
54310121 | 6025 | =item ucfirst |
bbce6d69 | 6026 | |
ad0029c4 JH |
6027 | Returns the value of EXPR with the first character in uppercase |
6028 | (titlecase in Unicode). This is the internal function implementing | |
6029 | the C<\u> escape in double-quoted strings. Respects current LC_CTYPE | |
983ffd37 JH |
6030 | locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale> and L<perlunicode> |
6031 | for more details about locale and Unicode support. | |
a0d0e21e | 6032 | |
7660c0ab | 6033 | If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. |
bbce6d69 | 6034 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6035 | =item umask EXPR |
6036 | ||
6037 | =item umask | |
6038 | ||
2f9daede | 6039 | Sets the umask for the process to EXPR and returns the previous value. |
eec2d3df GS |
6040 | If EXPR is omitted, merely returns the current umask. |
6041 | ||
0591cd52 NT |
6042 | The Unix permission C<rwxr-x---> is represented as three sets of three |
6043 | bits, or three octal digits: C<0750> (the leading 0 indicates octal | |
b5a41e52 | 6044 | and isn't one of the digits). The C<umask> value is such a number |
0591cd52 NT |
6045 | representing disabled permissions bits. The permission (or "mode") |
6046 | values you pass C<mkdir> or C<sysopen> are modified by your umask, so | |
6047 | even if you tell C<sysopen> to create a file with permissions C<0777>, | |
6048 | if your umask is C<0022> then the file will actually be created with | |
6049 | permissions C<0755>. If your C<umask> were C<0027> (group can't | |
6050 | write; others can't read, write, or execute), then passing | |
19799a22 | 6051 | C<sysopen> C<0666> would create a file with mode C<0640> (C<0666 &~ |
0591cd52 NT |
6052 | 027> is C<0640>). |
6053 | ||
6054 | Here's some advice: supply a creation mode of C<0666> for regular | |
19799a22 GS |
6055 | files (in C<sysopen>) and one of C<0777> for directories (in |
6056 | C<mkdir>) and executable files. This gives users the freedom of | |
0591cd52 NT |
6057 | choice: if they want protected files, they might choose process umasks |
6058 | of C<022>, C<027>, or even the particularly antisocial mask of C<077>. | |
6059 | Programs should rarely if ever make policy decisions better left to | |
6060 | the user. The exception to this is when writing files that should be | |
6061 | kept private: mail files, web browser cookies, I<.rhosts> files, and | |
6062 | so on. | |
6063 | ||
f86cebdf | 6064 | If umask(2) is not implemented on your system and you are trying to |
eec2d3df | 6065 | restrict access for I<yourself> (i.e., (EXPR & 0700) > 0), produces a |
f86cebdf | 6066 | fatal error at run time. If umask(2) is not implemented and you are |
eec2d3df GS |
6067 | not trying to restrict access for yourself, returns C<undef>. |
6068 | ||
6069 | Remember that a umask is a number, usually given in octal; it is I<not> a | |
6070 | string of octal digits. See also L</oct>, if all you have is a string. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6071 | |
6072 | =item undef EXPR | |
6073 | ||
6074 | =item undef | |
6075 | ||
54310121 | 6076 | Undefines the value of EXPR, which must be an lvalue. Use only on a |
19799a22 | 6077 | scalar value, an array (using C<@>), a hash (using C<%>), a subroutine |
92d1d699 | 6078 | (using C<&>), or a typeglob (using C<*>). (Saying C<undef $hash{$key}> |
20408e3c GS |
6079 | will probably not do what you expect on most predefined variables or |
6080 | DBM list values, so don't do that; see L<delete>.) Always returns the | |
6081 | undefined value. You can omit the EXPR, in which case nothing is | |
6082 | undefined, but you still get an undefined value that you could, for | |
6083 | instance, return from a subroutine, assign to a variable or pass as a | |
6084 | parameter. Examples: | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6085 | |
6086 | undef $foo; | |
f86cebdf | 6087 | undef $bar{'blurfl'}; # Compare to: delete $bar{'blurfl'}; |
a0d0e21e | 6088 | undef @ary; |
aa689395 | 6089 | undef %hash; |
a0d0e21e | 6090 | undef &mysub; |
20408e3c | 6091 | undef *xyz; # destroys $xyz, @xyz, %xyz, &xyz, etc. |
54310121 | 6092 | return (wantarray ? (undef, $errmsg) : undef) if $they_blew_it; |
2f9daede TP |
6093 | select undef, undef, undef, 0.25; |
6094 | ($a, $b, undef, $c) = &foo; # Ignore third value returned | |
a0d0e21e | 6095 | |
5a964f20 TC |
6096 | Note that this is a unary operator, not a list operator. |
6097 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
6098 | =item unlink LIST |
6099 | ||
54310121 | 6100 | =item unlink |
bbce6d69 | 6101 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6102 | Deletes a list of files. Returns the number of files successfully |
6103 | deleted. | |
6104 | ||
6105 | $cnt = unlink 'a', 'b', 'c'; | |
6106 | unlink @goners; | |
6107 | unlink <*.bak>; | |
6108 | ||
19799a22 | 6109 | Note: C<unlink> will not delete directories unless you are superuser and |
a0d0e21e LW |
6110 | the B<-U> flag is supplied to Perl. Even if these conditions are |
6111 | met, be warned that unlinking a directory can inflict damage on your | |
19799a22 | 6112 | filesystem. Use C<rmdir> instead. |
a0d0e21e | 6113 | |
7660c0ab | 6114 | If LIST is omitted, uses C<$_>. |
bbce6d69 | 6115 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6116 | =item unpack TEMPLATE,EXPR |
6117 | ||
13dcffc6 CS |
6118 | =item unpack TEMPLATE |
6119 | ||
19799a22 | 6120 | C<unpack> does the reverse of C<pack>: it takes a string |
2b6c5635 | 6121 | and expands it out into a list of values. |
19799a22 | 6122 | (In scalar context, it returns merely the first value produced.) |
2b6c5635 | 6123 | |
13dcffc6 CS |
6124 | If EXPR is omitted, unpacks the C<$_> string. |
6125 | ||
2b6c5635 GS |
6126 | The string is broken into chunks described by the TEMPLATE. Each chunk |
6127 | is converted separately to a value. Typically, either the string is a result | |
6128 | of C<pack>, or the bytes of the string represent a C structure of some | |
6129 | kind. | |
6130 | ||
19799a22 | 6131 | The TEMPLATE has the same format as in the C<pack> function. |
a0d0e21e LW |
6132 | Here's a subroutine that does substring: |
6133 | ||
6134 | sub substr { | |
5a964f20 | 6135 | my($what,$where,$howmuch) = @_; |
a0d0e21e LW |
6136 | unpack("x$where a$howmuch", $what); |
6137 | } | |
6138 | ||
6139 | and then there's | |
6140 | ||
6141 | sub ordinal { unpack("c",$_[0]); } # same as ord() | |
6142 | ||
2b6c5635 | 6143 | In addition to fields allowed in pack(), you may prefix a field with |
61eff3bc JH |
6144 | a %<number> to indicate that |
6145 | you want a <number>-bit checksum of the items instead of the items | |
2b6c5635 GS |
6146 | themselves. Default is a 16-bit checksum. Checksum is calculated by |
6147 | summing numeric values of expanded values (for string fields the sum of | |
6148 | C<ord($char)> is taken, for bit fields the sum of zeroes and ones). | |
6149 | ||
6150 | For example, the following | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6151 | computes the same number as the System V sum program: |
6152 | ||
19799a22 GS |
6153 | $checksum = do { |
6154 | local $/; # slurp! | |
6155 | unpack("%32C*",<>) % 65535; | |
6156 | }; | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6157 | |
6158 | The following efficiently counts the number of set bits in a bit vector: | |
6159 | ||
6160 | $setbits = unpack("%32b*", $selectmask); | |
6161 | ||
951ba7fe | 6162 | The C<p> and C<P> formats should be used with care. Since Perl |
3160c391 GS |
6163 | has no way of checking whether the value passed to C<unpack()> |
6164 | corresponds to a valid memory location, passing a pointer value that's | |
6165 | not known to be valid is likely to have disastrous consequences. | |
6166 | ||
49704364 WL |
6167 | If there are more pack codes or if the repeat count of a field or a group |
6168 | is larger than what the remainder of the input string allows, the result | |
6169 | is not well defined: in some cases, the repeat count is decreased, or | |
6170 | C<unpack()> will produce null strings or zeroes, or terminate with an | |
6171 | error. If the input string is longer than one described by the TEMPLATE, | |
6172 | the rest is ignored. | |
2b6c5635 | 6173 | |
851646ae | 6174 | See L</pack> for more examples and notes. |
5a929a98 | 6175 | |
98293880 JH |
6176 | =item untie VARIABLE |
6177 | ||
19799a22 | 6178 | Breaks the binding between a variable and a package. (See C<tie>.) |
1188453a | 6179 | Has no effect if the variable is not tied. |
98293880 | 6180 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6181 | =item unshift ARRAY,LIST |
6182 | ||
19799a22 | 6183 | Does the opposite of a C<shift>. Or the opposite of a C<push>, |
a0d0e21e LW |
6184 | depending on how you look at it. Prepends list to the front of the |
6185 | array, and returns the new number of elements in the array. | |
6186 | ||
76e4c2bb | 6187 | unshift(@ARGV, '-e') unless $ARGV[0] =~ /^-/; |
a0d0e21e LW |
6188 | |
6189 | Note the LIST is prepended whole, not one element at a time, so the | |
19799a22 | 6190 | prepended elements stay in the same order. Use C<reverse> to do the |
a0d0e21e LW |
6191 | reverse. |
6192 | ||
f6c8478c GS |
6193 | =item use Module VERSION LIST |
6194 | ||
6195 | =item use Module VERSION | |
6196 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
6197 | =item use Module LIST |
6198 | ||
6199 | =item use Module | |
6200 | ||
da0045b7 | 6201 | =item use VERSION |
6202 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
6203 | Imports some semantics into the current package from the named module, |
6204 | generally by aliasing certain subroutine or variable names into your | |
6205 | package. It is exactly equivalent to | |
6206 | ||
6207 | BEGIN { require Module; import Module LIST; } | |
6208 | ||
54310121 | 6209 | except that Module I<must> be a bareword. |
da0045b7 | 6210 | |
3b825e41 RK |
6211 | VERSION may be either a numeric argument such as 5.006, which will be |
6212 | compared to C<$]>, or a literal of the form v5.6.1, which will be compared | |
6213 | to C<$^V> (aka $PERL_VERSION. A fatal error is produced if VERSION is | |
6214 | greater than the version of the current Perl interpreter; Perl will not | |
6215 | attempt to parse the rest of the file. Compare with L</require>, which can | |
6216 | do a similar check at run time. | |
6217 | ||
6218 | Specifying VERSION as a literal of the form v5.6.1 should generally be | |
6219 | avoided, because it leads to misleading error messages under earlier | |
6220 | versions of Perl which do not support this syntax. The equivalent numeric | |
6221 | version should be used instead. | |
16070b82 | 6222 | |
dd629d5b GS |
6223 | use v5.6.1; # compile time version check |
6224 | use 5.6.1; # ditto | |
3b825e41 | 6225 | use 5.006_001; # ditto; preferred for backwards compatibility |
16070b82 GS |
6226 | |
6227 | This is often useful if you need to check the current Perl version before | |
6228 | C<use>ing library modules that have changed in incompatible ways from | |
6229 | older versions of Perl. (We try not to do this more than we have to.) | |
da0045b7 | 6230 | |
19799a22 | 6231 | The C<BEGIN> forces the C<require> and C<import> to happen at compile time. The |
7660c0ab | 6232 | C<require> makes sure the module is loaded into memory if it hasn't been |
19799a22 GS |
6233 | yet. The C<import> is not a builtin--it's just an ordinary static method |
6234 | call into the C<Module> package to tell the module to import the list of | |
a0d0e21e | 6235 | features back into the current package. The module can implement its |
19799a22 GS |
6236 | C<import> method any way it likes, though most modules just choose to |
6237 | derive their C<import> method via inheritance from the C<Exporter> class that | |
6238 | is defined in the C<Exporter> module. See L<Exporter>. If no C<import> | |
593b9c14 YST |
6239 | method can be found then the call is skipped, even if there is an AUTOLOAD |
6240 | method. | |
cb1a09d0 | 6241 | |
31686daf JP |
6242 | If you do not want to call the package's C<import> method (for instance, |
6243 | to stop your namespace from being altered), explicitly supply the empty list: | |
cb1a09d0 AD |
6244 | |
6245 | use Module (); | |
6246 | ||
6247 | That is exactly equivalent to | |
6248 | ||
5a964f20 | 6249 | BEGIN { require Module } |
a0d0e21e | 6250 | |
da0045b7 | 6251 | If the VERSION argument is present between Module and LIST, then the |
71be2cbc | 6252 | C<use> will call the VERSION method in class Module with the given |
6253 | version as an argument. The default VERSION method, inherited from | |
44dcb63b | 6254 | the UNIVERSAL class, croaks if the given version is larger than the |
b76cc8ba | 6255 | value of the variable C<$Module::VERSION>. |
f6c8478c GS |
6256 | |
6257 | Again, there is a distinction between omitting LIST (C<import> called | |
6258 | with no arguments) and an explicit empty LIST C<()> (C<import> not | |
6259 | called). Note that there is no comma after VERSION! | |
da0045b7 | 6260 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6261 | Because this is a wide-open interface, pragmas (compiler directives) |
6262 | are also implemented this way. Currently implemented pragmas are: | |
6263 | ||
f3798619 | 6264 | use constant; |
4633a7c4 | 6265 | use diagnostics; |
f3798619 | 6266 | use integer; |
4438c4b7 JH |
6267 | use sigtrap qw(SEGV BUS); |
6268 | use strict qw(subs vars refs); | |
6269 | use subs qw(afunc blurfl); | |
6270 | use warnings qw(all); | |
58c7fc7c | 6271 | use sort qw(stable _quicksort _mergesort); |
a0d0e21e | 6272 | |
19799a22 | 6273 | Some of these pseudo-modules import semantics into the current |
5a964f20 TC |
6274 | block scope (like C<strict> or C<integer>, unlike ordinary modules, |
6275 | which import symbols into the current package (which are effective | |
6276 | through the end of the file). | |
a0d0e21e | 6277 | |
19799a22 GS |
6278 | There's a corresponding C<no> command that unimports meanings imported |
6279 | by C<use>, i.e., it calls C<unimport Module LIST> instead of C<import>. | |
593b9c14 YST |
6280 | It behaves exactly as C<import> does with respect to VERSION, an |
6281 | omitted LIST, empty LIST, or no unimport method being found. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6282 | |
6283 | no integer; | |
6284 | no strict 'refs'; | |
4438c4b7 | 6285 | no warnings; |
a0d0e21e | 6286 | |
ac634a9a | 6287 | See L<perlmodlib> for a list of standard modules and pragmas. See L<perlrun> |
31686daf JP |
6288 | for the C<-M> and C<-m> command-line options to perl that give C<use> |
6289 | functionality from the command-line. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6290 | |
6291 | =item utime LIST | |
6292 | ||
6293 | Changes the access and modification times on each file of a list of | |
6294 | files. The first two elements of the list must be the NUMERICAL access | |
6295 | and modification times, in that order. Returns the number of files | |
46cdf678 | 6296 | successfully changed. The inode change time of each file is set |
4bc2a53d CW |
6297 | to the current time. For example, this code has the same effect as the |
6298 | Unix touch(1) command when the files I<already exist>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6299 | |
6300 | #!/usr/bin/perl | |
2c21a326 GA |
6301 | $atime = $mtime = time; |
6302 | utime $atime, $mtime, @ARGV; | |
4bc2a53d CW |
6303 | |
6304 | Since perl 5.7.2, if the first two elements of the list are C<undef>, then | |
6305 | the utime(2) function in the C library will be called with a null second | |
6306 | argument. On most systems, this will set the file's access and | |
6307 | modification times to the current time (i.e. equivalent to the example | |
6308 | above.) | |
c6f7b413 RS |
6309 | |
6310 | utime undef, undef, @ARGV; | |
6311 | ||
2c21a326 GA |
6312 | Under NFS this will use the time of the NFS server, not the time of |
6313 | the local machine. If there is a time synchronization problem, the | |
6314 | NFS server and local machine will have different times. The Unix | |
6315 | touch(1) command will in fact normally use this form instead of the | |
6316 | one shown in the first example. | |
6317 | ||
6318 | Note that only passing one of the first two elements as C<undef> will | |
6319 | be equivalent of passing it as 0 and will not have the same effect as | |
6320 | described when they are both C<undef>. This case will also trigger an | |
6321 | uninitialized warning. | |
6322 | ||
aa689395 | 6323 | =item values HASH |
a0d0e21e | 6324 | |
504f80c1 JH |
6325 | Returns a list consisting of all the values of the named hash. |
6326 | (In a scalar context, returns the number of values.) | |
6327 | ||
6328 | The values are returned in an apparently random order. The actual | |
6329 | random order is subject to change in future versions of perl, but it | |
6330 | is guaranteed to be the same order as either the C<keys> or C<each> | |
4546b9e6 JH |
6331 | function would produce on the same (unmodified) hash. Since Perl |
6332 | 5.8.1 the ordering is different even between different runs of Perl | |
6333 | for security reasons (see L<perlsec/"Algorithmic Complexity Attacks">). | |
504f80c1 JH |
6334 | |
6335 | As a side effect, calling values() resets the HASH's internal iterator, | |
2f65b2f0 RGS |
6336 | see L</each>. (In particular, calling values() in void context resets |
6337 | the iterator with no other overhead.) | |
ab192400 | 6338 | |
8ea1e5d4 GS |
6339 | Note that the values are not copied, which means modifying them will |
6340 | modify the contents of the hash: | |
2b5ab1e7 | 6341 | |
8ea1e5d4 GS |
6342 | for (values %hash) { s/foo/bar/g } # modifies %hash values |
6343 | for (@hash{keys %hash}) { s/foo/bar/g } # same | |
2b5ab1e7 | 6344 | |
19799a22 | 6345 | See also C<keys>, C<each>, and C<sort>. |
a0d0e21e LW |
6346 | |
6347 | =item vec EXPR,OFFSET,BITS | |
6348 | ||
e69129f1 GS |
6349 | Treats the string in EXPR as a bit vector made up of elements of |
6350 | width BITS, and returns the value of the element specified by OFFSET | |
6351 | as an unsigned integer. BITS therefore specifies the number of bits | |
6352 | that are reserved for each element in the bit vector. This must | |
6353 | be a power of two from 1 to 32 (or 64, if your platform supports | |
6354 | that). | |
c5a0f51a | 6355 | |
b76cc8ba | 6356 | If BITS is 8, "elements" coincide with bytes of the input string. |
c73032f5 IZ |
6357 | |
6358 | If BITS is 16 or more, bytes of the input string are grouped into chunks | |
6359 | of size BITS/8, and each group is converted to a number as with | |
b1866b2d | 6360 | pack()/unpack() with big-endian formats C<n>/C<N> (and analogously |
c73032f5 IZ |
6361 | for BITS==64). See L<"pack"> for details. |
6362 | ||
6363 | If bits is 4 or less, the string is broken into bytes, then the bits | |
6364 | of each byte are broken into 8/BITS groups. Bits of a byte are | |
6365 | numbered in a little-endian-ish way, as in C<0x01>, C<0x02>, | |
6366 | C<0x04>, C<0x08>, C<0x10>, C<0x20>, C<0x40>, C<0x80>. For example, | |
6367 | breaking the single input byte C<chr(0x36)> into two groups gives a list | |
6368 | C<(0x6, 0x3)>; breaking it into 4 groups gives C<(0x2, 0x1, 0x3, 0x0)>. | |
6369 | ||
81e118e0 JH |
6370 | C<vec> may also be assigned to, in which case parentheses are needed |
6371 | to give the expression the correct precedence as in | |
22dc801b | 6372 | |
6373 | vec($image, $max_x * $x + $y, 8) = 3; | |
a0d0e21e | 6374 | |
fe58ced6 MG |
6375 | If the selected element is outside the string, the value 0 is returned. |
6376 | If an element off the end of the string is written to, Perl will first | |
6377 | extend the string with sufficiently many zero bytes. It is an error | |
6378 | to try to write off the beginning of the string (i.e. negative OFFSET). | |
fac70343 | 6379 | |
33b45480 | 6380 | The string should not contain any character with the value > 255 (which |
1e54db1a JH |
6381 | can only happen if you're using UTF-8 encoding). If it does, it will be |
6382 | treated as something which is not UTF-8 encoded. When the C<vec> was | |
33b45480 | 6383 | assigned to, other parts of your program will also no longer consider the |
1e54db1a | 6384 | string to be UTF-8 encoded. In other words, if you do have such characters |
33b45480 SB |
6385 | in your string, vec() will operate on the actual byte string, and not the |
6386 | conceptual character string. | |
246fae53 | 6387 | |
fac70343 GS |
6388 | Strings created with C<vec> can also be manipulated with the logical |
6389 | operators C<|>, C<&>, C<^>, and C<~>. These operators will assume a bit | |
6390 | vector operation is desired when both operands are strings. | |
c5a0f51a | 6391 | See L<perlop/"Bitwise String Operators">. |
a0d0e21e | 6392 | |
7660c0ab | 6393 | The following code will build up an ASCII string saying C<'PerlPerlPerl'>. |
19799a22 | 6394 | The comments show the string after each step. Note that this code works |
cca87523 GS |
6395 | in the same way on big-endian or little-endian machines. |
6396 | ||
6397 | my $foo = ''; | |
6398 | vec($foo, 0, 32) = 0x5065726C; # 'Perl' | |
e69129f1 GS |
6399 | |
6400 | # $foo eq "Perl" eq "\x50\x65\x72\x6C", 32 bits | |
6401 | print vec($foo, 0, 8); # prints 80 == 0x50 == ord('P') | |
6402 | ||
cca87523 GS |
6403 | vec($foo, 2, 16) = 0x5065; # 'PerlPe' |
6404 | vec($foo, 3, 16) = 0x726C; # 'PerlPerl' | |
6405 | vec($foo, 8, 8) = 0x50; # 'PerlPerlP' | |
6406 | vec($foo, 9, 8) = 0x65; # 'PerlPerlPe' | |
6407 | vec($foo, 20, 4) = 2; # 'PerlPerlPe' . "\x02" | |
f86cebdf GS |
6408 | vec($foo, 21, 4) = 7; # 'PerlPerlPer' |
6409 | # 'r' is "\x72" | |
cca87523 GS |
6410 | vec($foo, 45, 2) = 3; # 'PerlPerlPer' . "\x0c" |
6411 | vec($foo, 93, 1) = 1; # 'PerlPerlPer' . "\x2c" | |
f86cebdf GS |
6412 | vec($foo, 94, 1) = 1; # 'PerlPerlPerl' |
6413 | # 'l' is "\x6c" | |
cca87523 | 6414 | |
19799a22 | 6415 | To transform a bit vector into a string or list of 0's and 1's, use these: |
a0d0e21e LW |
6416 | |
6417 | $bits = unpack("b*", $vector); | |
6418 | @bits = split(//, unpack("b*", $vector)); | |
6419 | ||
7660c0ab | 6420 | If you know the exact length in bits, it can be used in place of the C<*>. |
a0d0e21e | 6421 | |
e69129f1 GS |
6422 | Here is an example to illustrate how the bits actually fall in place: |
6423 | ||
6424 | #!/usr/bin/perl -wl | |
6425 | ||
6426 | print <<'EOT'; | |
b76cc8ba | 6427 | 0 1 2 3 |
e69129f1 GS |
6428 | unpack("V",$_) 01234567890123456789012345678901 |
6429 | ------------------------------------------------------------------ | |
6430 | EOT | |
6431 | ||
6432 | for $w (0..3) { | |
6433 | $width = 2**$w; | |
6434 | for ($shift=0; $shift < $width; ++$shift) { | |
6435 | for ($off=0; $off < 32/$width; ++$off) { | |
6436 | $str = pack("B*", "0"x32); | |
6437 | $bits = (1<<$shift); | |
6438 | vec($str, $off, $width) = $bits; | |
6439 | $res = unpack("b*",$str); | |
6440 | $val = unpack("V", $str); | |
6441 | write; | |
6442 | } | |
6443 | } | |
6444 | } | |
6445 | ||
6446 | format STDOUT = | |
6447 | vec($_,@#,@#) = @<< == @######### @>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> | |
6448 | $off, $width, $bits, $val, $res | |
6449 | . | |
6450 | __END__ | |
6451 | ||
6452 | Regardless of the machine architecture on which it is run, the above | |
6453 | example should print the following table: | |
6454 | ||
b76cc8ba | 6455 | 0 1 2 3 |
e69129f1 GS |
6456 | unpack("V",$_) 01234567890123456789012345678901 |
6457 | ------------------------------------------------------------------ | |
6458 | vec($_, 0, 1) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000 | |
6459 | vec($_, 1, 1) = 1 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000 | |
6460 | vec($_, 2, 1) = 1 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000 | |
6461 | vec($_, 3, 1) = 1 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000 | |
6462 | vec($_, 4, 1) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000 | |
6463 | vec($_, 5, 1) = 1 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000 | |
6464 | vec($_, 6, 1) = 1 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000 | |
6465 | vec($_, 7, 1) = 1 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000 | |
6466 | vec($_, 8, 1) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000 | |
6467 | vec($_, 9, 1) = 1 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000 | |
6468 | vec($_,10, 1) = 1 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000 | |
6469 | vec($_,11, 1) = 1 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000 | |
6470 | vec($_,12, 1) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000 | |
6471 | vec($_,13, 1) = 1 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000 | |
6472 | vec($_,14, 1) = 1 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000 | |
6473 | vec($_,15, 1) = 1 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000 | |
6474 | vec($_,16, 1) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000 | |
6475 | vec($_,17, 1) = 1 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000 | |
6476 | vec($_,18, 1) = 1 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000 | |
6477 | vec($_,19, 1) = 1 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000 | |
6478 | vec($_,20, 1) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000 | |
6479 | vec($_,21, 1) = 1 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000 | |
6480 | vec($_,22, 1) = 1 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000 | |
6481 | vec($_,23, 1) = 1 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000 | |
6482 | vec($_,24, 1) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000 | |
6483 | vec($_,25, 1) = 1 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000 | |
6484 | vec($_,26, 1) = 1 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000 | |
6485 | vec($_,27, 1) = 1 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000 | |
6486 | vec($_,28, 1) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000 | |
6487 | vec($_,29, 1) = 1 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100 | |
6488 | vec($_,30, 1) = 1 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010 | |
6489 | vec($_,31, 1) = 1 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001 | |
6490 | vec($_, 0, 2) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000 | |
6491 | vec($_, 1, 2) = 1 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000 | |
6492 | vec($_, 2, 2) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000 | |
6493 | vec($_, 3, 2) = 1 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000 | |
6494 | vec($_, 4, 2) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000 | |
6495 | vec($_, 5, 2) = 1 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000 | |
6496 | vec($_, 6, 2) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000 | |
6497 | vec($_, 7, 2) = 1 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000 | |
6498 | vec($_, 8, 2) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000 | |
6499 | vec($_, 9, 2) = 1 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000 | |
6500 | vec($_,10, 2) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000 | |
6501 | vec($_,11, 2) = 1 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000 | |
6502 | vec($_,12, 2) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000 | |
6503 | vec($_,13, 2) = 1 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000 | |
6504 | vec($_,14, 2) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000 | |
6505 | vec($_,15, 2) = 1 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010 | |
6506 | vec($_, 0, 2) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000 | |
6507 | vec($_, 1, 2) = 2 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000 | |
6508 | vec($_, 2, 2) = 2 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000 | |
6509 | vec($_, 3, 2) = 2 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000 | |
6510 | vec($_, 4, 2) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000 | |
6511 | vec($_, 5, 2) = 2 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000 | |
6512 | vec($_, 6, 2) = 2 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000 | |
6513 | vec($_, 7, 2) = 2 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000 | |
6514 | vec($_, 8, 2) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000 | |
6515 | vec($_, 9, 2) = 2 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000 | |
6516 | vec($_,10, 2) = 2 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000 | |
6517 | vec($_,11, 2) = 2 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000 | |
6518 | vec($_,12, 2) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000 | |
6519 | vec($_,13, 2) = 2 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000 | |
6520 | vec($_,14, 2) = 2 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100 | |
6521 | vec($_,15, 2) = 2 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001 | |
6522 | vec($_, 0, 4) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000 | |
6523 | vec($_, 1, 4) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000 | |
6524 | vec($_, 2, 4) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000 | |
6525 | vec($_, 3, 4) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000 | |
6526 | vec($_, 4, 4) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000 | |
6527 | vec($_, 5, 4) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000 | |
6528 | vec($_, 6, 4) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000 | |
6529 | vec($_, 7, 4) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000 | |
6530 | vec($_, 0, 4) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000 | |
6531 | vec($_, 1, 4) = 2 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000 | |
6532 | vec($_, 2, 4) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000 | |
6533 | vec($_, 3, 4) = 2 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000 | |
6534 | vec($_, 4, 4) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000 | |
6535 | vec($_, 5, 4) = 2 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000 | |
6536 | vec($_, 6, 4) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000 | |
6537 | vec($_, 7, 4) = 2 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100 | |
6538 | vec($_, 0, 4) = 4 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000 | |
6539 | vec($_, 1, 4) = 4 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000 | |
6540 | vec($_, 2, 4) = 4 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000 | |
6541 | vec($_, 3, 4) = 4 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000 | |
6542 | vec($_, 4, 4) = 4 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000 | |
6543 | vec($_, 5, 4) = 4 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000 | |
6544 | vec($_, 6, 4) = 4 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000 | |
6545 | vec($_, 7, 4) = 4 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010 | |
6546 | vec($_, 0, 4) = 8 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000 | |
6547 | vec($_, 1, 4) = 8 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000 | |
6548 | vec($_, 2, 4) = 8 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000 | |
6549 | vec($_, 3, 4) = 8 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000 | |
6550 | vec($_, 4, 4) = 8 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000 | |
6551 | vec($_, 5, 4) = 8 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000 | |
6552 | vec($_, 6, 4) = 8 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000 | |
6553 | vec($_, 7, 4) = 8 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001 | |
6554 | vec($_, 0, 8) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000 | |
6555 | vec($_, 1, 8) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000 | |
6556 | vec($_, 2, 8) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000 | |
6557 | vec($_, 3, 8) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000 | |
6558 | vec($_, 0, 8) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000 | |
6559 | vec($_, 1, 8) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000 | |
6560 | vec($_, 2, 8) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000 | |
6561 | vec($_, 3, 8) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000 | |
6562 | vec($_, 0, 8) = 4 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000 | |
6563 | vec($_, 1, 8) = 4 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000 | |
6564 | vec($_, 2, 8) = 4 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000 | |
6565 | vec($_, 3, 8) = 4 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000 | |
6566 | vec($_, 0, 8) = 8 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000 | |
6567 | vec($_, 1, 8) = 8 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000 | |
6568 | vec($_, 2, 8) = 8 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000 | |
6569 | vec($_, 3, 8) = 8 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000 | |
6570 | vec($_, 0, 8) = 16 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000 | |
6571 | vec($_, 1, 8) = 16 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000 | |
6572 | vec($_, 2, 8) = 16 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000 | |
6573 | vec($_, 3, 8) = 16 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000 | |
6574 | vec($_, 0, 8) = 32 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000 | |
6575 | vec($_, 1, 8) = 32 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000 | |
6576 | vec($_, 2, 8) = 32 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000 | |
6577 | vec($_, 3, 8) = 32 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100 | |
6578 | vec($_, 0, 8) = 64 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000 | |
6579 | vec($_, 1, 8) = 64 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000 | |
6580 | vec($_, 2, 8) = 64 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000 | |
6581 | vec($_, 3, 8) = 64 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010 | |
6582 | vec($_, 0, 8) = 128 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000 | |
6583 | vec($_, 1, 8) = 128 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000 | |
6584 | vec($_, 2, 8) = 128 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000 | |
6585 | vec($_, 3, 8) = 128 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001 | |
6586 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
6587 | =item wait |
6588 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
6589 | Behaves like the wait(2) system call on your system: it waits for a child |
6590 | process to terminate and returns the pid of the deceased process, or | |
19799a22 | 6591 | C<-1> if there are no child processes. The status is returned in C<$?>. |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
6592 | Note that a return value of C<-1> could mean that child processes are |
6593 | being automatically reaped, as described in L<perlipc>. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6594 | |
6595 | =item waitpid PID,FLAGS | |
6596 | ||
2b5ab1e7 TC |
6597 | Waits for a particular child process to terminate and returns the pid of |
6598 | the deceased process, or C<-1> if there is no such child process. On some | |
6599 | systems, a value of 0 indicates that there are processes still running. | |
6600 | The status is returned in C<$?>. If you say | |
a0d0e21e | 6601 | |
5f05dabc | 6602 | use POSIX ":sys_wait_h"; |
5a964f20 | 6603 | #... |
b76cc8ba | 6604 | do { |
2ac1ef3d | 6605 | $kid = waitpid(-1, WNOHANG); |
6506d41e | 6606 | } until $kid > 0; |
a0d0e21e | 6607 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
6608 | then you can do a non-blocking wait for all pending zombie processes. |
6609 | Non-blocking wait is available on machines supporting either the | |
6610 | waitpid(2) or wait4(2) system calls. However, waiting for a particular | |
6611 | pid with FLAGS of C<0> is implemented everywhere. (Perl emulates the | |
6612 | system call by remembering the status values of processes that have | |
6613 | exited but have not been harvested by the Perl script yet.) | |
a0d0e21e | 6614 | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
6615 | Note that on some systems, a return value of C<-1> could mean that child |
6616 | processes are being automatically reaped. See L<perlipc> for details, | |
6617 | and for other examples. | |
5a964f20 | 6618 | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6619 | =item wantarray |
6620 | ||
19799a22 GS |
6621 | Returns true if the context of the currently executing subroutine is |
6622 | looking for a list value. Returns false if the context is looking | |
54310121 | 6623 | for a scalar. Returns the undefined value if the context is looking |
6624 | for no value (void context). | |
a0d0e21e | 6625 | |
54310121 | 6626 | return unless defined wantarray; # don't bother doing more |
6627 | my @a = complex_calculation(); | |
6628 | return wantarray ? @a : "@a"; | |
a0d0e21e | 6629 | |
19799a22 GS |
6630 | This function should have been named wantlist() instead. |
6631 | ||
a0d0e21e LW |
6632 | =item warn LIST |
6633 | ||
19799a22 | 6634 | Produces a message on STDERR just like C<die>, but doesn't exit or throw |
774d564b | 6635 | an exception. |
6636 | ||
7660c0ab A |
6637 | If LIST is empty and C<$@> already contains a value (typically from a |
6638 | previous eval) that value is used after appending C<"\t...caught"> | |
19799a22 GS |
6639 | to C<$@>. This is useful for staying almost, but not entirely similar to |
6640 | C<die>. | |
43051805 | 6641 | |
7660c0ab | 6642 | If C<$@> is empty then the string C<"Warning: Something's wrong"> is used. |
43051805 | 6643 | |
774d564b | 6644 | No message is printed if there is a C<$SIG{__WARN__}> handler |
6645 | installed. It is the handler's responsibility to deal with the message | |
19799a22 | 6646 | as it sees fit (like, for instance, converting it into a C<die>). Most |
774d564b | 6647 | handlers must therefore make arrangements to actually display the |
19799a22 | 6648 | warnings that they are not prepared to deal with, by calling C<warn> |
774d564b | 6649 | again in the handler. Note that this is quite safe and will not |
6650 | produce an endless loop, since C<__WARN__> hooks are not called from | |
6651 | inside one. | |
6652 | ||
6653 | You will find this behavior is slightly different from that of | |
6654 | C<$SIG{__DIE__}> handlers (which don't suppress the error text, but can | |
19799a22 | 6655 | instead call C<die> again to change it). |
774d564b | 6656 | |
6657 | Using a C<__WARN__> handler provides a powerful way to silence all | |
6658 | warnings (even the so-called mandatory ones). An example: | |
6659 | ||
6660 | # wipe out *all* compile-time warnings | |
6661 | BEGIN { $SIG{'__WARN__'} = sub { warn $_[0] if $DOWARN } } | |
6662 | my $foo = 10; | |
6663 | my $foo = 20; # no warning about duplicate my $foo, | |
6664 | # but hey, you asked for it! | |
6665 | # no compile-time or run-time warnings before here | |
6666 | $DOWARN = 1; | |
6667 | ||
6668 | # run-time warnings enabled after here | |
6669 | warn "\$foo is alive and $foo!"; # does show up | |
6670 | ||
6671 | See L<perlvar> for details on setting C<%SIG> entries, and for more | |
2b5ab1e7 TC |
6672 | examples. See the Carp module for other kinds of warnings using its |
6673 | carp() and cluck() functions. | |
a0d0e21e LW |
6674 | |
6675 | =item write FILEHANDLE | |
6676 | ||
6677 | =item write EXPR | |
6678 | ||
6679 | =item write | |
6680 | ||
5a964f20 | 6681 | Writes a formatted record (possibly multi-line) to the specified FILEHANDLE, |
a0d0e21e | 6682 | using the format associated with that file. By default the format for |
54310121 | 6683 | a file is the one having the same name as the filehandle, but the |
19799a22 | 6684 | format for the current output channel (see the C<select> function) may be set |
184e9718 | 6685 | explicitly by assigning the name of the format to the C<$~> variable. |
a0d0e21e LW |
6686 | |
6687 | Top of form processing is handled automatically: if there is | |
6688 | insufficient room on the current page for the formatted record, the | |
6689 | page is advanced by writing a form feed, a special top-of-page format | |
6690 | is used to format the new page header, and then the record is written. | |
6691 | By default the top-of-page format is the name of the filehandle with | |
6692 | "_TOP" appended, but it may be dynamically set to the format of your | |
184e9718 | 6693 | choice by assigning the name to the C<$^> variable while the filehandle is |
a0d0e21e | 6694 | selected. The number of lines remaining on the current page is in |
7660c0ab | 6695 | variable C<$->, which can be set to C<0> to force a new page. |
a0d0e21e LW |
6696 | |
6697 | If FILEHANDLE is unspecified, output goes to the current default output | |
6698 | channel, which starts out as STDOUT but may be changed by the | |
19799a22 | 6699 | C<select> operator. If the FILEHANDLE is an EXPR, then the expression |
a0d0e21e LW |
6700 | is evaluated and the resulting string is used to look up the name of |
6701 | the FILEHANDLE at run time. For more on formats, see L<perlform>. | |
6702 | ||
19799a22 | 6703 | Note that write is I<not> the opposite of C<read>. Unfortunately. |
a0d0e21e LW |
6704 | |
6705 | =item y/// | |
6706 | ||
7660c0ab | 6707 | The transliteration operator. Same as C<tr///>. See L<perlop>. |
a0d0e21e LW |
6708 | |
6709 | =back |